ESPM C10 Spring 2020
Final Exam Study Guide
Tips for making this an effective study guide:
1. Be concise. Answer in the fewest words possible while maintaining accuracy.
2. Put it in your own words. Copy/pasting doesn’t help you remember stuff.
3. Don’t be afraid to be creative and funny! It makes terms more memorable than if
you just give dry definitions.
4. Give examples/clues that will help you remember terms
5. You c an use Google, but I suggest sticking with the lecture and reading materials
from class. Google will lead you down a rabbit hole of things you don’t need to
know!
6. How to get a ‘takeaway’ from a reading:
a. Read the professor’s introduction to/summary of the reading
b. Skip to the end: what does the author conclude?
c. What subjects/concepts from class does the reading cover?
d. What terms does it use that we have covered in class?
e. Explain the article to your friend in one sentence: “I was reading this article
about climate change, and it said that ___________________”
Table of Contents
Cultural cognition: why we believe what we do 2
Science & Science Communication: the culture and practice of science 3
Earth & Climate Science: where are we now? 4
Human Impacts on Earth 5
Wicked Problems 6
Origins of Agriculture (Past) 7
Transition to Modern Farming (Recent Past) 8
Modern Food Systems (Present) 9
Food Systems Looking Forward (Future) 10
Climate & Energy 11
Misinformation & Environmental Issues 12
Cities, the Great Acceleration & Modern Society 13
Economic systems, materials economy, supply chains, and fashion 14
Why the environment is important to you 15
Anything important from the last two lectures? (4/29 & 5/1) 16
, 1.Cultural cognition: why we believe what we
do
Guiding Questions:
What is cultural cognition theory?
a. How we perceive risk and information in relation to our cultural values
i. Developed by Dan Kahan
ii. People range on a scale from individualist to communitarian and
hierarchist to egalitarian on the cultural cognition grid
1. Individualist hierarchists are typically conservative
2. Egalitarian communitarians are typically liberal
2. What are the cognitive mechanisms of how culture influences how we receive
information?
a. Cultural Credibility
i. Credibility is given to people in our same tribe
ii. Messenger is just as important as the message
b. Cultural Availability
i. We selectively remember information that supports our worldview
1. ex: voter fraud
ii. We accept information that affirms the beliefs we already have
c. Cultural Identity Affirmation
i. We react negatively to any information that challenges our
preconceived beliefs
d. Cultural Identity-protective Cognition
i. Higher tendency to take on values of people that fit into their
groups
ii. Example: white males have least interest in climate change risk
e. Culturally biased assimilation of information and cultural polarization
i. Bias of delusional superiority
ii. Dunning-Kruger Effect
1. A group of people that know nothing about the issue, think
that they know a lot about the issue and have a high degree
of confidence
3. How can we counteract these mechanisms?
a. Follow the example of Bono (or Katharine Hayhoe, “scientific Bono”)
i. Pluralistic advocacy aka cultural credibility
1. If there are experts of diverse values on both sides of the
debate, individuals are more open-minded to information
that conflicts with their predisposition
2. If information is coming from experts who hold values that
an individual disagrees with, then that individual will likely
reject the information.
, 3. This was weak for Bono, a rockstar appealing to politicians,
but stronger for Hayhoe, a Christian scientist appealing to
conservative Christians
ii. Cultural affirmation
1. If information affirms or is consistent with an individual’s
cultural values, then that individual is more likely to accept
the information
2. Example: shared Christian values
iii. Narrative framing
1. Craft the message to evoke a narrative that is pleasing
(culturally congenial) to target audiences
2. Bono framed AIDS relief to Africa as consistent with the
narrative of Christians responding to human suffering
4. What are examples of this being done poorly? What are examples of it being done
well?
a. Poorly: Forcing graphs/science/facts onto someone
i. Ex. showing someone a chart of global warming trends as a starting
point
b. Well: Taking into account other person’s worldview; leading with values
i. Recognizing someone’s viewpoint on global warming and
establishing a line of trust
Terms:
● Cultural identity-protective cognition:
● The tendency of people to fit their views to those of others who share the
same values
● Culturally biased assimilation of information and cultural polarization:
● Unconsciously selecting information and arguments that reinforce their
beliefs and dismissing those that contravene them
● Cultural availability:
● Recalling instances of confirmation of our ideas much more than recalling
exceptions
● Cultural Identity affirmation:
● Reacting negatively to new information or an idea if it threatens our world
view
● Dunning-Kruger Effect
● Some subset of the people that know nothing about a certain topic tend to
think they know a lot about the issue
● Confirmation bias
● The tendency to interpret new evidence as confirmation of one’s existing
beliefs or theories
● Cognitive Dissonance
, ● Having inconsistent thoughts, beliefs or attitudes (especially relating to
behavioral decision and attitude change)
● Narrative framing
● Assimilating information by fitting it to pre-existing templates
● Pluralistic advocacy / cultural credibility:
● Being more willing to accept new information from someone from our
cultural tribe
● Cultural affirmation
● Being more willing to accept information when the speaker shares a similar
background or moral values
● Smart-idiot effect
● The tendency of people with little knowledge about a topic overestimating
the knowledge they possess
Reading Takeaways:
1. Kahan. 2011. “Cultural Cognition as a Conception of the Cultural Theory of Risk.”
Kahan says that people should have a perception of risk that is reflective of as well as
support their way of life. This reading also introduces the cultural cognition grid and
explains the workings of cultural cognition.
2. Kahan et al 2012. “The polarizing impact of science literacy and numeracy on
perceived climate change risks”
The reading presents the results of a study conducted regarding the relationship
between education and public opinion on climate change. Interestingly, the reading
highlights the counterintuitive “smart idiot” effect since the perceived climate risk actually
decreased with education. Party affiliation does play a significant role as this result only
held for hierarchical individualists, while the expected response still held for the
egalitarian communitarians.
3. Oreskes and Conway. 2013. “The Collapse of Western Civilization: A View from the
Future”
It is written from a future point of view. It points out the irony of western civilization
basically scientifically understanding the climate’s demise, but not doing anything about
it. It started with the Industrial Revolution releasing CO2. Scientists noticed that CO2 was
being absorbed by the atmosphere but total emissions were still too low to worry about.
Soon with insecticides that killed birds and mammals and chlorinated fluorocarbons
depleted stratospheric ozone layer let to the planetary sink approaching saturation. 2009
seen as “last best chance” and wanted to agree on a binding, international law to prevent
disruptive climate change, BUT fossil fuel corporations launched a campaign to discredit
the scientists. Thus, public support disappeared. In 2011, shale gas was driving other
energy sources. It produces half as much CO2 as coal, so companies convinced
themselves it was ethical. Instead, it released CH4 which are fugitive methane emissions
that greatly accelerated global warming. Also, low prices of fossil fuels undercut efficiency
efforts which weakened the market for solar, wind, and biofuels to emerge. Basically, it
Final Exam Study Guide
Tips for making this an effective study guide:
1. Be concise. Answer in the fewest words possible while maintaining accuracy.
2. Put it in your own words. Copy/pasting doesn’t help you remember stuff.
3. Don’t be afraid to be creative and funny! It makes terms more memorable than if
you just give dry definitions.
4. Give examples/clues that will help you remember terms
5. You c an use Google, but I suggest sticking with the lecture and reading materials
from class. Google will lead you down a rabbit hole of things you don’t need to
know!
6. How to get a ‘takeaway’ from a reading:
a. Read the professor’s introduction to/summary of the reading
b. Skip to the end: what does the author conclude?
c. What subjects/concepts from class does the reading cover?
d. What terms does it use that we have covered in class?
e. Explain the article to your friend in one sentence: “I was reading this article
about climate change, and it said that ___________________”
Table of Contents
Cultural cognition: why we believe what we do 2
Science & Science Communication: the culture and practice of science 3
Earth & Climate Science: where are we now? 4
Human Impacts on Earth 5
Wicked Problems 6
Origins of Agriculture (Past) 7
Transition to Modern Farming (Recent Past) 8
Modern Food Systems (Present) 9
Food Systems Looking Forward (Future) 10
Climate & Energy 11
Misinformation & Environmental Issues 12
Cities, the Great Acceleration & Modern Society 13
Economic systems, materials economy, supply chains, and fashion 14
Why the environment is important to you 15
Anything important from the last two lectures? (4/29 & 5/1) 16
, 1.Cultural cognition: why we believe what we
do
Guiding Questions:
What is cultural cognition theory?
a. How we perceive risk and information in relation to our cultural values
i. Developed by Dan Kahan
ii. People range on a scale from individualist to communitarian and
hierarchist to egalitarian on the cultural cognition grid
1. Individualist hierarchists are typically conservative
2. Egalitarian communitarians are typically liberal
2. What are the cognitive mechanisms of how culture influences how we receive
information?
a. Cultural Credibility
i. Credibility is given to people in our same tribe
ii. Messenger is just as important as the message
b. Cultural Availability
i. We selectively remember information that supports our worldview
1. ex: voter fraud
ii. We accept information that affirms the beliefs we already have
c. Cultural Identity Affirmation
i. We react negatively to any information that challenges our
preconceived beliefs
d. Cultural Identity-protective Cognition
i. Higher tendency to take on values of people that fit into their
groups
ii. Example: white males have least interest in climate change risk
e. Culturally biased assimilation of information and cultural polarization
i. Bias of delusional superiority
ii. Dunning-Kruger Effect
1. A group of people that know nothing about the issue, think
that they know a lot about the issue and have a high degree
of confidence
3. How can we counteract these mechanisms?
a. Follow the example of Bono (or Katharine Hayhoe, “scientific Bono”)
i. Pluralistic advocacy aka cultural credibility
1. If there are experts of diverse values on both sides of the
debate, individuals are more open-minded to information
that conflicts with their predisposition
2. If information is coming from experts who hold values that
an individual disagrees with, then that individual will likely
reject the information.
, 3. This was weak for Bono, a rockstar appealing to politicians,
but stronger for Hayhoe, a Christian scientist appealing to
conservative Christians
ii. Cultural affirmation
1. If information affirms or is consistent with an individual’s
cultural values, then that individual is more likely to accept
the information
2. Example: shared Christian values
iii. Narrative framing
1. Craft the message to evoke a narrative that is pleasing
(culturally congenial) to target audiences
2. Bono framed AIDS relief to Africa as consistent with the
narrative of Christians responding to human suffering
4. What are examples of this being done poorly? What are examples of it being done
well?
a. Poorly: Forcing graphs/science/facts onto someone
i. Ex. showing someone a chart of global warming trends as a starting
point
b. Well: Taking into account other person’s worldview; leading with values
i. Recognizing someone’s viewpoint on global warming and
establishing a line of trust
Terms:
● Cultural identity-protective cognition:
● The tendency of people to fit their views to those of others who share the
same values
● Culturally biased assimilation of information and cultural polarization:
● Unconsciously selecting information and arguments that reinforce their
beliefs and dismissing those that contravene them
● Cultural availability:
● Recalling instances of confirmation of our ideas much more than recalling
exceptions
● Cultural Identity affirmation:
● Reacting negatively to new information or an idea if it threatens our world
view
● Dunning-Kruger Effect
● Some subset of the people that know nothing about a certain topic tend to
think they know a lot about the issue
● Confirmation bias
● The tendency to interpret new evidence as confirmation of one’s existing
beliefs or theories
● Cognitive Dissonance
, ● Having inconsistent thoughts, beliefs or attitudes (especially relating to
behavioral decision and attitude change)
● Narrative framing
● Assimilating information by fitting it to pre-existing templates
● Pluralistic advocacy / cultural credibility:
● Being more willing to accept new information from someone from our
cultural tribe
● Cultural affirmation
● Being more willing to accept information when the speaker shares a similar
background or moral values
● Smart-idiot effect
● The tendency of people with little knowledge about a topic overestimating
the knowledge they possess
Reading Takeaways:
1. Kahan. 2011. “Cultural Cognition as a Conception of the Cultural Theory of Risk.”
Kahan says that people should have a perception of risk that is reflective of as well as
support their way of life. This reading also introduces the cultural cognition grid and
explains the workings of cultural cognition.
2. Kahan et al 2012. “The polarizing impact of science literacy and numeracy on
perceived climate change risks”
The reading presents the results of a study conducted regarding the relationship
between education and public opinion on climate change. Interestingly, the reading
highlights the counterintuitive “smart idiot” effect since the perceived climate risk actually
decreased with education. Party affiliation does play a significant role as this result only
held for hierarchical individualists, while the expected response still held for the
egalitarian communitarians.
3. Oreskes and Conway. 2013. “The Collapse of Western Civilization: A View from the
Future”
It is written from a future point of view. It points out the irony of western civilization
basically scientifically understanding the climate’s demise, but not doing anything about
it. It started with the Industrial Revolution releasing CO2. Scientists noticed that CO2 was
being absorbed by the atmosphere but total emissions were still too low to worry about.
Soon with insecticides that killed birds and mammals and chlorinated fluorocarbons
depleted stratospheric ozone layer let to the planetary sink approaching saturation. 2009
seen as “last best chance” and wanted to agree on a binding, international law to prevent
disruptive climate change, BUT fossil fuel corporations launched a campaign to discredit
the scientists. Thus, public support disappeared. In 2011, shale gas was driving other
energy sources. It produces half as much CO2 as coal, so companies convinced
themselves it was ethical. Instead, it released CH4 which are fugitive methane emissions
that greatly accelerated global warming. Also, low prices of fossil fuels undercut efficiency
efforts which weakened the market for solar, wind, and biofuels to emerge. Basically, it
