(11) animal physiology
1.1 antibody production and vaccination
every organism has unique molecules on the surface of their cells
immune system differentiates between ‘self’ and ‘foreign’ -> immune response (antigen)
● (glyco)proteins, polysaccharides on virus envelope etc
○ functional: eg binds pathogen to host
antigens on the surface of red blood cells stimulate antibody production in a person with a
different blood group
RBCs have agglutinogens (antigens) that react w specific agglutinins (antibodies): ABO
● O: basic polypeptide (universal donor)
○ A: additional N-acetylgalactosamine
○ B: additional galactose
○ AB: both (universal recipient)
● blood contains antibodies for antigens not on ‘own’ RBCs
○ bad transfusion: agglutination -> lysis -> coagulation in blood vessel
immunity ↑
major histocompability complex
APC (eg macrophage) present antigen on MHC -> TH binds by receptor protein (lymph node) -> activated
● B lymphocytes are activated by T lymphocytes in mammals
○ TH directly binds to B lymphocyte
○ release cytokines to activate B + T lymphocytes
● activated B cells multiply to form a clone of plasma cells and memory cells, plasma cells
secrete antibodies, antibodies aid the destruction of pathogens
● polyclonal selection: macrophage w many molecules in membrane -> many B
lymphocytes selected
○ opsonization: tag pathogen for destruction
○ neutralisation: prevent pathogen from entering / affecting healthy cells
○ agglutination: enhances ^ by sticking together
● larger masses filtered by lymphatic system -> phagocytized
○ complement activation: activation of enzymes in complement cascade -> ‘membrane
attack complex’ -> perforate membrane -> water / ion entry -> lyse
immunity depends upon the persistence of memory cells (or antibodies)
● after primary exposure: high plasma antibody levels protect from st re-infection
● second exposure: higher bm levels increase probability of antigen encountering specific bm ->
faster + more antibody production
immunity:
● innate (genetically determined)
● acquired
○ active: antibody production by organism itself
● natural: exposed to disease
● artificial: vaccine
○ passive: pre-made antibodies from other organism’s immune response
● natural: breastmilk
● artificial: other sources
, vaccines contain antigens that trigger immunity but do not cause the disease
vaccines: illicits primary immune response
I
○ live attenuated / inactivated
○ weakened toxins
○ subunits ( eg part of antigen)
● have antigen (epitope) -> stimulate clonal selection + memory
pathogens can be species-specific although others can cross species barriers
pathogens generally highly specific -> affects narrow range of hosts, need specific receptors / conditions
● eg polis only affects human
zoonosis: pathogens that affect 1+ species (eg bird flu)
blood ED mnstcells + basophils
n
white cells release histamine in response to allergens
histamines cause allergic symptoms
mast cells (connective tissue) + basophil (circulating) release histamine
● vasodilation + increased capillary permeability in infected area
● always non specific + specific immunity
allergy symptoms: sneezing, inflammation, mucus secretion, itching
producing monoclonal antibodies for treatment (rabies) or diagnosis (HIV)
● monoclonal antibodies: highly specific, purified antibodies produced by clones of a single cell
(1) inject (mice) w antigen -> illicit immune response -> plasma B cell production
(2) plasma cells harvested from spleen
(3) fusion of tumor cell (myeloma) with antibody-producing plasma cell creates a hybridoma cell
(4) screened -> cultured / cloned
(5) monoclonal antibodies are produced by hybridoma cells
monoclonal antibodies to hCG are used in pregnancy test kits
hCG produced by developing embryo, present in urine
monoclonal antibodies to hCG tagged w dye binds to hCG -> positive test
smallpox was the first infectious disease of humans to have been eradicated by vaccination
due to
● lasting immunity (unlike malaria)
● no animal reservoir (unlike yellow fever, monkeys)
● symptoms emerge before contagious period / early (unlike polio, measles)
Jenner tested his vaccine for smallpox on a child
infected 8 year old w cowpox -> injected w smallpox -> survived
● child not of consent age
● no research done beforehand
analysis of epidemiological data related to vaccination programmes
epidemiology: study of distribution, cause + control of diseases
● to minimize harm + early detection of outbreaks
● analyze transmission -> effective vaccination measures
● estimate true disease incidence
1.1 antibody production and vaccination
every organism has unique molecules on the surface of their cells
immune system differentiates between ‘self’ and ‘foreign’ -> immune response (antigen)
● (glyco)proteins, polysaccharides on virus envelope etc
○ functional: eg binds pathogen to host
antigens on the surface of red blood cells stimulate antibody production in a person with a
different blood group
RBCs have agglutinogens (antigens) that react w specific agglutinins (antibodies): ABO
● O: basic polypeptide (universal donor)
○ A: additional N-acetylgalactosamine
○ B: additional galactose
○ AB: both (universal recipient)
● blood contains antibodies for antigens not on ‘own’ RBCs
○ bad transfusion: agglutination -> lysis -> coagulation in blood vessel
immunity ↑
major histocompability complex
APC (eg macrophage) present antigen on MHC -> TH binds by receptor protein (lymph node) -> activated
● B lymphocytes are activated by T lymphocytes in mammals
○ TH directly binds to B lymphocyte
○ release cytokines to activate B + T lymphocytes
● activated B cells multiply to form a clone of plasma cells and memory cells, plasma cells
secrete antibodies, antibodies aid the destruction of pathogens
● polyclonal selection: macrophage w many molecules in membrane -> many B
lymphocytes selected
○ opsonization: tag pathogen for destruction
○ neutralisation: prevent pathogen from entering / affecting healthy cells
○ agglutination: enhances ^ by sticking together
● larger masses filtered by lymphatic system -> phagocytized
○ complement activation: activation of enzymes in complement cascade -> ‘membrane
attack complex’ -> perforate membrane -> water / ion entry -> lyse
immunity depends upon the persistence of memory cells (or antibodies)
● after primary exposure: high plasma antibody levels protect from st re-infection
● second exposure: higher bm levels increase probability of antigen encountering specific bm ->
faster + more antibody production
immunity:
● innate (genetically determined)
● acquired
○ active: antibody production by organism itself
● natural: exposed to disease
● artificial: vaccine
○ passive: pre-made antibodies from other organism’s immune response
● natural: breastmilk
● artificial: other sources
, vaccines contain antigens that trigger immunity but do not cause the disease
vaccines: illicits primary immune response
I
○ live attenuated / inactivated
○ weakened toxins
○ subunits ( eg part of antigen)
● have antigen (epitope) -> stimulate clonal selection + memory
pathogens can be species-specific although others can cross species barriers
pathogens generally highly specific -> affects narrow range of hosts, need specific receptors / conditions
● eg polis only affects human
zoonosis: pathogens that affect 1+ species (eg bird flu)
blood ED mnstcells + basophils
n
white cells release histamine in response to allergens
histamines cause allergic symptoms
mast cells (connective tissue) + basophil (circulating) release histamine
● vasodilation + increased capillary permeability in infected area
● always non specific + specific immunity
allergy symptoms: sneezing, inflammation, mucus secretion, itching
producing monoclonal antibodies for treatment (rabies) or diagnosis (HIV)
● monoclonal antibodies: highly specific, purified antibodies produced by clones of a single cell
(1) inject (mice) w antigen -> illicit immune response -> plasma B cell production
(2) plasma cells harvested from spleen
(3) fusion of tumor cell (myeloma) with antibody-producing plasma cell creates a hybridoma cell
(4) screened -> cultured / cloned
(5) monoclonal antibodies are produced by hybridoma cells
monoclonal antibodies to hCG are used in pregnancy test kits
hCG produced by developing embryo, present in urine
monoclonal antibodies to hCG tagged w dye binds to hCG -> positive test
smallpox was the first infectious disease of humans to have been eradicated by vaccination
due to
● lasting immunity (unlike malaria)
● no animal reservoir (unlike yellow fever, monkeys)
● symptoms emerge before contagious period / early (unlike polio, measles)
Jenner tested his vaccine for smallpox on a child
infected 8 year old w cowpox -> injected w smallpox -> survived
● child not of consent age
● no research done beforehand
analysis of epidemiological data related to vaccination programmes
epidemiology: study of distribution, cause + control of diseases
● to minimize harm + early detection of outbreaks
● analyze transmission -> effective vaccination measures
● estimate true disease incidence
