www.pathfinderacademy.in
, Life Sciences
Fundamentals and Practice
Part – II
Fourth edition
Pranav Kumar
Former faculty,
Department of Biotechnology,
Jamia Millia Islamia,
New Delhi, India
Usha Mina
Senior Scientist,
CESCRA,
Indian Agricultural Research Institute (IARI),
New Delhi, India
®
Pathfinder Publication
New Delhi, India
www.pathfinderacademy.in
, Pranav Kumar
Former faculty,
Department of Biotechnology,
Jamia Millia Islamia,
New Delhi, India
Usha Mina
Senior Scientist,
CESCRA,
Indian Agricultural Research Institute (IARI),
New Delhi, India
Life Sciences Fundamentals and Practice, Fourth edition
ISBN: 978-81-906427-7-4 (paperback)
Copyright © 2014 by Pathfinder Publication, all rights reserved.
This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly
regarded sources. Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data
and information, but the author and the publisher cannot assume responsibility
for the validity of all materials or for the consequences of their use.
No part of this book may be reproduced by any mechanical, photographic, or
electronic process, or in the form of a phonographic recording, nor it may be
stored in a retrieval system, transmitted, or otherwise copied for public or
private use, without written permission from the publisher.
Publisher : Pathfinder Publication
Production editor : Ajay Kumar
Copy editor : Jomesh Joseph
Illustration and layout : Pradeep Verma
Cover design : Pradeep Verma
Marketing director : Arun Kumar
Production coordinator : Murari Kumar Singh
Printer : Ronit Enterprises, New Delhi, India
Pathfinder Publication
A unit of Pathfinder Academy Private Limited, New Delhi, India.
www.thepathfinder.in
09350208235
www.pathfinderacademy.in
, Preface
Life Sciences have always been a fundamental area of science. The exponential increase in
the quantity of scientific information and the rate, at which new discoveries are made, require
very elaborate, interdisciplinary and up-to-date information and their understanding. This
fourth edition of Life sciences, Fundamentals and practice includes extensive revisions of the
previous edition. We have attempted to provide an extraordinarily large amount of information
from the enormous and ever-growing field in an easily retrievable form. It is written in clear
and concise language to enhance self-motivation and strategic learning skill of the students
and empowering them with a mechanism to measure and analyze their abilities and the confi-
dence of winning. We have given equal importance to text and illustrations. The fourth edition
has a number of new figures to enhance understanding. At the same time, we avoid excess
details, which can obscure the main point of the figure. We have retained the design elements
that have evolved through the previous editions to make the book easier to read. Sincere
efforts have been made to support textual clarifications and explanations with the help of
flow charts, figures and tables to make learning easy and convincing. The chapters have been
supplemented with self-tests and questions so as to check one’s own level of understanding.
We hope you will find this book interesting, relevant and challenging.
Acknowledgements
Our students were the original inspiration for the first edition of this book, and we remain
continually grateful to all of them, because we learn from them how to think about the life sci-
ences and how to communicate knowledge in most meaningful way. We thank, Dr. Diwakar
Kumar Singh, Harleen Kaur and Mr. Ajay Kumar, reviewers of this book, whose comment and
suggestions were invaluable in improving the text. Any book of this kind requires meticulous
and painstaking efforts by all its contributors. Several diligent and hardworking minds have
come together to bring out this book in this complete form. We are much beholden to each of
them and especially to Dr. Neeraj Tiwari. This book is a team effort, and producing it would be
impossible without the outstanding people of Pathfinder Publication. It was a pleasure to work
with many other dedicated and creative people of Pathfinder Publication during the production
of this book, especially Pradeep Verma.
Pranav Kumar
Usha Mina
iii
www.pathfinderacademy.in
, Life Sciences
Fundamentals and Practice
Part – II
Fourth edition
Pranav Kumar
Former faculty,
Department of Biotechnology,
Jamia Millia Islamia,
New Delhi, India
Usha Mina
Senior Scientist,
CESCRA,
Indian Agricultural Research Institute (IARI),
New Delhi, India
®
Pathfinder Publication
New Delhi, India
www.pathfinderacademy.in
, Pranav Kumar
Former faculty,
Department of Biotechnology,
Jamia Millia Islamia,
New Delhi, India
Usha Mina
Senior Scientist,
CESCRA,
Indian Agricultural Research Institute (IARI),
New Delhi, India
Life Sciences Fundamentals and Practice, Fourth edition
ISBN: 978-81-906427-7-4 (paperback)
Copyright © 2014 by Pathfinder Publication, all rights reserved.
This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly
regarded sources. Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data
and information, but the author and the publisher cannot assume responsibility
for the validity of all materials or for the consequences of their use.
No part of this book may be reproduced by any mechanical, photographic, or
electronic process, or in the form of a phonographic recording, nor it may be
stored in a retrieval system, transmitted, or otherwise copied for public or
private use, without written permission from the publisher.
Publisher : Pathfinder Publication
Production editor : Ajay Kumar
Copy editor : Jomesh Joseph
Illustration and layout : Pradeep Verma
Cover design : Pradeep Verma
Marketing director : Arun Kumar
Production coordinator : Murari Kumar Singh
Printer : Ronit Enterprises, New Delhi, India
Pathfinder Publication
A unit of Pathfinder Academy Private Limited, New Delhi, India.
www.thepathfinder.in
09350208235
www.pathfinderacademy.in
, Preface
Life Sciences have always been a fundamental area of science. The exponential increase in
the quantity of scientific information and the rate, at which new discoveries are made, require
very elaborate, interdisciplinary and up-to-date information and their understanding. This
fourth edition of Life sciences, Fundamentals and practice includes extensive revisions of the
previous edition. We have attempted to provide an extraordinarily large amount of information
from the enormous and ever-growing field in an easily retrievable form. It is written in clear
and concise language to enhance self-motivation and strategic learning skill of the students
and empowering them with a mechanism to measure and analyze their abilities and the confi-
dence of winning. We have given equal importance to text and illustrations. The fourth edition
has a number of new figures to enhance understanding. At the same time, we avoid excess
details, which can obscure the main point of the figure. We have retained the design elements
that have evolved through the previous editions to make the book easier to read. Sincere
efforts have been made to support textual clarifications and explanations with the help of
flow charts, figures and tables to make learning easy and convincing. The chapters have been
supplemented with self-tests and questions so as to check one’s own level of understanding.
We hope you will find this book interesting, relevant and challenging.
Acknowledgements
Our students were the original inspiration for the first edition of this book, and we remain
continually grateful to all of them, because we learn from them how to think about the life sci-
ences and how to communicate knowledge in most meaningful way. We thank, Dr. Diwakar
Kumar Singh, Harleen Kaur and Mr. Ajay Kumar, reviewers of this book, whose comment and
suggestions were invaluable in improving the text. Any book of this kind requires meticulous
and painstaking efforts by all its contributors. Several diligent and hardworking minds have
come together to bring out this book in this complete form. We are much beholden to each of
them and especially to Dr. Neeraj Tiwari. This book is a team effort, and producing it would be
impossible without the outstanding people of Pathfinder Publication. It was a pleasure to work
with many other dedicated and creative people of Pathfinder Publication during the production
of this book, especially Pradeep Verma.
Pranav Kumar
Usha Mina
iii
www.pathfinderacademy.in
