AQA A-Level Media Studies Theories - Representa on, Language, Audience, Industry
Stuart Hall - Recep on Theory
States that producers encode media texts with messages and values for audiences to decode. These are
decoded/read in three dis nct ways:
● Dominant/Preferred Reading - the material is decoded the way the producer had intended it to be
● Nego ated Reading - the audience understands the values and messages the producer has encoded,
however, provides their interpreta on; a compromise
● Opposi onal Reading - the audience either fail/completely rejects the message and values decoded
due to its containment of controversial values or views that contradict/go against the beliefs of
audience members
Stuart Hall - Representa on Theory
Stuart Hall believes that representa ons are constructed by the ideological perspec ve of the producer -
someone who has power. In addi on, he believed that stereotyping, as a form of representa on, simpli es
people. Albeit, they are tools that are frequently exploited allowing producers to construct media products and
audiences to decode with ease. Consequently, stereotyping occurs when there are inequali es of power, as
ethnic minori es are mostly seen as “other”.
Vladimir Propp - Character Types
Upon studying a substan al number of folk tales, Propp iden ed seven basic character types:
1. Hero - the protagonist
2. Villain - the antagonist
3. Dispatcher - sends the hero on the quest
4. False hero/red herring - o en a helper who betrays the hero
5. Donor - gives the hero advice or a tool to aid them with their journey
6. Princess/Prize - the mo va on/prize for the hero
7. Helper/Sidekick - axioma cally aids the hero
Hesmondhalgh’s - Cultural Industries
David Hesmondalgh believes that media industries need to implement strategies that entail the minimisa on
of risk and the maximisa on of audiences to experience success:
● Ver cal integra on - refers to companies purchasing companies that operate within a di erent aspect
of the produc on process - for example, when a produc on company purchases a distribu on
company
● Horizontal integra on - entails companies purchasing/taking over other companies opera ng within
the same industry - for example, when Disney purchased Marvel for $4 billion
● Taking Advantage over Media Technologies & Pla orms - where companies diversify their por olio
by venturing into other media sectors such as music, tv, and video games. For example, Sony is well-
reputable for having a diverse por olio of brands ranging from video games to lm and television
● Focussing on Popular Trends - a signi cant approach that can be implemented when analysing market
trends that are experiencing consecu ve success. For example, the Assassin’s Creed franchise is
gaining entries every 1-2 years due to their subsequent success
● Controlled Release Schedule - refers to limi ng the launch/release of a product, to an extent where it
creates an element of exclusivity - for example, the Assassin’s Creed III: Libera on game was released
only for those willing to purchase a PSVITA console
● Detailed Marke ng Campaigns - a simple however e ec ve approach a business with su cient funds
can adopt by expanding their brand presence and marke ng - for example, guerilla marke ng
techniques e.t.c
, AQA A-Level Media Studies Theories - Representa on, Language, Audience, Industry
Blulmer & Katz - Uses and Gra ca ons
This theory is developed on the premise that audiences choose what they want to consume based on 5
di erent reasons:
1. Informa on & Educa on - the viewer aims to acquire new knowledge, informa on and understanding
from watching programmes like the news
2. Entertainment - viewers consume the material solely for entertainment purposes
3. Personal Iden ty - viewers can iden fy a person or product that re ects similar characteris cs to
themselves
4. Social Interac on - refers to the viewer consuming material to build/develop their network and to
have a topic of conversa on
5. Escapism - the viewers choose to consume the material as it helps them temporarily escape from
reality; diversion. E.g. Audience members of The Voice Online will use the pla orm as a form of
escapism, because of the cultural connec on it creates.
Todorov - Narra ve Theory
Todorov’s theory suggests that most stories/plots follow a similar pa ern. These comprise 5 steps:
1. Equilibrium - the environment, ambience, and mood of the plot is posi ve and happy.
2. Disrup on - subsequently a problem would arise and happiness would be diminished
3. Realisa on - this part of the plot entails the realisa on/iden ca on of the problem which invokes a
form of chaos
4. Restored Order - consequently, this is where the characters a empt to repair the damage and restore
the problem
5. New Equilibrium - the order has been restored and enabling an evolved/matured form of normality to
resume
Levi Strauss - Binary Opposites/Binary Opposi ons
(Binary - containing two parts) Levi Strauss suggests that narra ves are driven forward by a con ict that was
caused by a series of opposing forces. In addi on, Strauss suggests that narra ves use this theory to build
interes ng plots. For example, a hero and villain un l a sort of balance is achieved between them, or a
resolu on. Addi onal examples include light and dark, good and evil, right and wrong.
Gerbner - Cul va on Theory
The theory suggests that repeated exposure to certain media material over me can subtly cul vate a viewer's
percep on of reality. For example, long-term exposure to violent material gradually subdues the audience's
reac on/view toward violence. Another example: the audience's percep on of reality during 1938 would have
been cul vated by the historical context (looming war and the Hindenburg Disaster) which would have
substan ated the plausibility of a mar an invasion (War of the Worlds)
Mean World Syndrome
This theory builds on Gerbner’s cul va on theory as it introduces the idea that audiences of violence-related
content begin to fabricate a rougher and more dangerous reality than it ini ally is.
Harold Lasswell - Hypodermic Syringe/Needle Theory
Developed in the 1920s-1930s, this theory emanates from the observed e ects of war propaganda, and Orson
Welles’ famous War of the Worlds broadcast. The theory suggests that media messages are directly injected
into the minds of passive audiences. It further suggests that we’re iden cal and respond iden cally.
The E ects Model - The Frankfurt School
Stuart Hall - Recep on Theory
States that producers encode media texts with messages and values for audiences to decode. These are
decoded/read in three dis nct ways:
● Dominant/Preferred Reading - the material is decoded the way the producer had intended it to be
● Nego ated Reading - the audience understands the values and messages the producer has encoded,
however, provides their interpreta on; a compromise
● Opposi onal Reading - the audience either fail/completely rejects the message and values decoded
due to its containment of controversial values or views that contradict/go against the beliefs of
audience members
Stuart Hall - Representa on Theory
Stuart Hall believes that representa ons are constructed by the ideological perspec ve of the producer -
someone who has power. In addi on, he believed that stereotyping, as a form of representa on, simpli es
people. Albeit, they are tools that are frequently exploited allowing producers to construct media products and
audiences to decode with ease. Consequently, stereotyping occurs when there are inequali es of power, as
ethnic minori es are mostly seen as “other”.
Vladimir Propp - Character Types
Upon studying a substan al number of folk tales, Propp iden ed seven basic character types:
1. Hero - the protagonist
2. Villain - the antagonist
3. Dispatcher - sends the hero on the quest
4. False hero/red herring - o en a helper who betrays the hero
5. Donor - gives the hero advice or a tool to aid them with their journey
6. Princess/Prize - the mo va on/prize for the hero
7. Helper/Sidekick - axioma cally aids the hero
Hesmondhalgh’s - Cultural Industries
David Hesmondalgh believes that media industries need to implement strategies that entail the minimisa on
of risk and the maximisa on of audiences to experience success:
● Ver cal integra on - refers to companies purchasing companies that operate within a di erent aspect
of the produc on process - for example, when a produc on company purchases a distribu on
company
● Horizontal integra on - entails companies purchasing/taking over other companies opera ng within
the same industry - for example, when Disney purchased Marvel for $4 billion
● Taking Advantage over Media Technologies & Pla orms - where companies diversify their por olio
by venturing into other media sectors such as music, tv, and video games. For example, Sony is well-
reputable for having a diverse por olio of brands ranging from video games to lm and television
● Focussing on Popular Trends - a signi cant approach that can be implemented when analysing market
trends that are experiencing consecu ve success. For example, the Assassin’s Creed franchise is
gaining entries every 1-2 years due to their subsequent success
● Controlled Release Schedule - refers to limi ng the launch/release of a product, to an extent where it
creates an element of exclusivity - for example, the Assassin’s Creed III: Libera on game was released
only for those willing to purchase a PSVITA console
● Detailed Marke ng Campaigns - a simple however e ec ve approach a business with su cient funds
can adopt by expanding their brand presence and marke ng - for example, guerilla marke ng
techniques e.t.c
, AQA A-Level Media Studies Theories - Representa on, Language, Audience, Industry
Blulmer & Katz - Uses and Gra ca ons
This theory is developed on the premise that audiences choose what they want to consume based on 5
di erent reasons:
1. Informa on & Educa on - the viewer aims to acquire new knowledge, informa on and understanding
from watching programmes like the news
2. Entertainment - viewers consume the material solely for entertainment purposes
3. Personal Iden ty - viewers can iden fy a person or product that re ects similar characteris cs to
themselves
4. Social Interac on - refers to the viewer consuming material to build/develop their network and to
have a topic of conversa on
5. Escapism - the viewers choose to consume the material as it helps them temporarily escape from
reality; diversion. E.g. Audience members of The Voice Online will use the pla orm as a form of
escapism, because of the cultural connec on it creates.
Todorov - Narra ve Theory
Todorov’s theory suggests that most stories/plots follow a similar pa ern. These comprise 5 steps:
1. Equilibrium - the environment, ambience, and mood of the plot is posi ve and happy.
2. Disrup on - subsequently a problem would arise and happiness would be diminished
3. Realisa on - this part of the plot entails the realisa on/iden ca on of the problem which invokes a
form of chaos
4. Restored Order - consequently, this is where the characters a empt to repair the damage and restore
the problem
5. New Equilibrium - the order has been restored and enabling an evolved/matured form of normality to
resume
Levi Strauss - Binary Opposites/Binary Opposi ons
(Binary - containing two parts) Levi Strauss suggests that narra ves are driven forward by a con ict that was
caused by a series of opposing forces. In addi on, Strauss suggests that narra ves use this theory to build
interes ng plots. For example, a hero and villain un l a sort of balance is achieved between them, or a
resolu on. Addi onal examples include light and dark, good and evil, right and wrong.
Gerbner - Cul va on Theory
The theory suggests that repeated exposure to certain media material over me can subtly cul vate a viewer's
percep on of reality. For example, long-term exposure to violent material gradually subdues the audience's
reac on/view toward violence. Another example: the audience's percep on of reality during 1938 would have
been cul vated by the historical context (looming war and the Hindenburg Disaster) which would have
substan ated the plausibility of a mar an invasion (War of the Worlds)
Mean World Syndrome
This theory builds on Gerbner’s cul va on theory as it introduces the idea that audiences of violence-related
content begin to fabricate a rougher and more dangerous reality than it ini ally is.
Harold Lasswell - Hypodermic Syringe/Needle Theory
Developed in the 1920s-1930s, this theory emanates from the observed e ects of war propaganda, and Orson
Welles’ famous War of the Worlds broadcast. The theory suggests that media messages are directly injected
into the minds of passive audiences. It further suggests that we’re iden cal and respond iden cally.
The E ects Model - The Frankfurt School
