PATHO 370 MIDTERM STUDY GUIDE COMPLETE 2023.

PATHO 370 MIDTERM STUDY GUIDE COMPLETE 2023. PATHO 370 Pathophysiology. define stress and give examples of physical, chemical, emotional, direct, indirect, external, internal, positive, negative stressors  Stress is a real or perceived threat to the balance of homeostasis. Stress response is to restore balance.  Stressors are agents/conditions that are capable of producing stress and endangering homeostasis o Physical: extreme hot or cold temperature o Chemical: auto exhaust o Emotional: nay involve traumatic experiences o Direct: o External: air pollution, radiation, car accident o Internal: low glucose level, threat to self-esteem - 3 stages of Selye’s General Adaptation Syndrome (physiological) Alarm Resistance- If the alarm phase persists, the body will suffer and become subject to severe damage/death. To survive the body moves past the alarm stage to the resistance phase Exhaustion- occurs when the body is no longer able to return to homeostasis after prolonged exposure to harmful agents Increased secretion of glucocorticoids responses Normalization of secretion Increased secretion by significant dysregulation Increased sympathetic nervous system Normalization of sympathetic nervous system Diseases of adaption Increased secretion of epinephrine from adrenal Normalization of epinephrine secretion Loss of resistance of stressor; medulla possible death of organism Fight or flight: the hypothalamus senses the need to activate the GAS response to a stressor risking homeostasis Resolution of fight of flight manifestations Reduces resistance to stressors Increased resistance to stressor - role of hypothalamus and function of corticotropin releasing hormone  Hypothalamus o Monitors internal and external environment o Secretes CRH to activate Sympathetic system o Secretes CRH to stimulate ACTH  CRH o Activates the SNS which in return stimulates the adrenal medulla to release epinephrine and norepinephrine - role of anterior pituitary and function of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)  Anterior pituitary then secretes ACTH o Found in the head also known as master gland o Influence growth, sexual development, skin pigmentation, thyroid function  ACTH causes adrenal cortex to release glucocorticoids o Regulate steroid hormone cortisol by releasing it o Produced in the pituitary gland in the brain - role of posterior pituitary and function of antidiuretic hormone/vasopressin (ADH) - role of adrenal glands and functions of:  Posterior pituitary o The back portion of the master gland o Secretes oxytocin which increase uterine contractions and ADH  ADH o Increases reabsorption of water by tubules in the kidney - catecholamines – epinephrine, norepinephrine  Catecholamines o Release of is imitated through the activation of the hypothalamus gland  Epinephrine o Increases glycogenolysis (release of glucose from the liver and inhibits insulin secretion, elevating blood glucose levels) o Enhanced myocardial contractility and increases heart and cardiac output  Norepinephrine o The primary constrictor of smooth muscle in blood cells and regulate blood flow through tissues and its distribution to organs, maintaining blood pressure o Reduces gastric secretion, inhibits secretion, and innervates muscles of the eyes, dilating pupils and increasing night and far vision - corticosteroids – cortisol, aldosterone  Corticosteroids/glucocorticoids o Lipid-soluble hormones; practically every tissue in body has receptors o Onset is slower and duration longer o Significant role in the control of the immune system  Cortisol o The primary glucocorticoid is secreted by adrenal cortex in response to ACTH o Binds to the hypothalamus and anterior pituitary gland to suppress CRH and ACTH in release to negative feedback loop  Aldosterone o Is a primary mineralocorticoid secreted by adrenal cortex o Once bound to receptors in kidneys distal tubes and collecting ducts, reabsorption of sodium and exertion of potassium - functions of endorphins/enkephalins and immune cytokines  Endorphins/Enkephalins o Produced in CNS and releases in response to certain stressors, by certain foods, laughter, massage/acupuncture o Reduce pain and increase euphoria and sedation  Immune cytokines o B and T lymphocytes produce several types of endorphins that are released in the response to stress - physical, behavioral, and emotional indicators of stress Physical Stress Behavioral/emotional  Elevated BP  Increased muscle tension  Sweaty palms  Tension headache  Anxiety  Depression  Increases use of substances  Changes in eating/sleeping - explain the difference between homeostasis and allostasis  Homeostasis o The state of balance of the persons biopsychosocial systems; maintain all internal parameters to be constant  Allostasis o Refers to the overall process of adaptive change needed to maintain survival and well-being - explain what occurs during allostatic overload  When adaption mechanisms are inadequate or the total amount is excessive, overwhelming allostasis - explain why each of the following can occur due to stress: hypertension, stroke, coronary artery disease  Hypertension: can cause through repeated blood pressure elevations as well as stimulation on the NS to produce large amounts of vasoconstriction which increase blood pressure  Stroke: High levels of cortisol causes salt retention which will increase blood pressure, causing stress on blood vessels making blood clotting more likely  Coronary artery disease: high levels of cortisol from long time stress can increase blood cholesterol, blood sugar and pressure. It can promote buildup of plaque deposits in the arteries - gastrointestinal problems, immune suppression, diabetes mellitus - define glycolysis, gluconeogenesis, glycogenolysis, glycogenesis  Glycolysis o The most fundamental system for sugar metabolism in the body; contributes the production of energy o The breakdown of glucose by enzymes, releasing energy  Gluconeogenesis o A metabolic pathway that results in the generation of glucose from certain noncarbohydrate carbon substances o Allows the body to store needed energy for the brain in the form of glucose  Glycogenolysis o The release of glucose from the liver and inhibits insulin secretion further elevating blood glucose levels  Glycogenesis o The transformation of glycogen from sugar to store and provide energy . Cytology- the branch of biology surrounding the structure of plant and animal cells Detrimental- tending to cause harm Disseminate- spread widely Diagnosis- the identification of the nature of an illness by examination of symptoms Endemic- a disease or condition regularly found among a particular people in a certain area Epidemic- a disease is disseminated to many individuals at the same time Epidemiology- the study and analysis of the distribution and patterns of health and disease conditions in defined populations Etiology- the study of causes or reasons for a phenomena Exacerbate- to make worse Excrete- to separate and expel as waste Histology- the study of microscopic structure of tissues Hypoxemia- poor oxygenation of blood Hypoxia- a condition in which the body is deprived of adequate oxygen supply Iatrogenic- the cause is a result of an unintended or unwanted medical intervention Idiopathic- the cause is unknown Incidence- the occurrence, rate, or frequency of a crime incubation period- the interval between exposure of a tissue to an injurious agent and the first appearance of symptoms in the case of infectious diseases. Infarction- death tissue due to inadequate blood supply to the affected area Inhibit- to hold in/hold back, restrain Insidious- proceeding a gradual, subtle way, but with harmful effects Intermittent- occurring at irregular cycles Ischemia- inadequate delivery of blood to cells Latent period- the interval between exposure to a tissue to an injurious agent and the first appearance of symptoms