Anatomy and Physiology 1 (exam 1) 2023 with verified question and answers

anatomy studies the structure of the body parts and their relationship to one another physiology studies the function of the body (how the body parts work and carry out their life sustaining activities) gross or macroscopic anatomy study the anatomical structures that can be see at naked eye -lungs, kidney, heart regional anatomy all structures in a particular region of the body are studied together systematic anatomy the body structure is studied system by system surface anatomy study the internal structures as they relate to the overlying skin surface microscopic anatomy study the internal structures that cannot be seen at naked eye -cells, tissues cytology study the cells of the body histology study the tissues of the body developmental anatomy traces the structural changes that occur during the lifespan embryology study the developmental changes that occur before birth renal physiology kidney, ureters, urinary bladder, urethra neurophysiology brain, nerves, spinal cord cardiovascular physiology heart, blood vessels, blood maintain boundaries: plasma membrane selectively restricts the diffusion of solutes into the cell intracellular in the cell extracellular out the cell -blood plasma, interstitial maintaining boundaries: skin maintaining internal humidity, protection against infections, heat, and chemicals movement uses the capacity of the muscular cells to constrict and the skeletal system to provide support responsiveness capacity of the organisms to sense changes on the environment(stimulus) and respond to them (nervous and excitable cells) digestion -performed by the digestive system -breaking down the food indigested into simpler compounds the can be absorbed and transported by the blood metabolism chemical reactions that occur within the cell catabolism breaking down substances into simpler chemical compounds anabolism synthesizing more complex substances, including energy-reaching molecules(ATP) from simpler chemical compounds excretion removing waster(excreta) from the body -digestive system= food residues(feces) -urinary system= nitrogen wastes(urine) -respiratory and cardiovascular= CO2 reproduction -cellular: cell division(mitosis and meiosis) -organism: performed by the reproductive system; feminine and masculine. Egg(ova) fertilization by the sperm growth increase in the size of a body part of the organism as a whole, usually by increasing the number of cells the human body needs____to survive -nutrients(carbs, proteins,fats,vitamins,and minerals) -oxygen -water(50-60% of the body weight) -proper temperature(37^C or 98.6^F) -proper atmospheric pressure homeostasis maintenance of the internal conditions despite environmental changes -dynamic equilibrium variable factor that needs to be regulated receptor sensor that monitors the environments and sends the information to the control center(AFFERENT PATHWAY) control center determine the set points(limits) of the variable and send the information to the effector(EFFERENT PATHWAY) effector execute the actions to recover the balance negative feedback directed to counteract the change of the variable positive feedback directed to boost the change on the variable anatomical position human body in erect with the feet slightly separated and the extended hands facing forward with the thumbs pointing away from the body superior(cranial) position towards the head of the upper part of the body -above -the chest is superior to the hips inferior(caudal) away from the head or toward the lower part of the body -the neck is caudal to the eyes anterior(ventral) toward the front of the body(in front of) -the nose is anterior to the ear posterior(dorsal) toward the back of the body(behind of) -the spine is dorsal to the heart medial toward or at the midline of the body -the nose is medial to the ear lateral away from the midline of the body -the lungs are lateral to the heart intermediate between a more medial and more lateral structure -the eye is intermediate between the ear and nose proximal close to the origin of the body part -the deltoid is proximal to the elbow distal farther to the origin of the body part -the ankle is distal to the knee superficial(external) toward the body surface -the cranium is superficial to the brain deep(internal) away from the body surface -the heart is internal to the skin axial head, neck,trunk appendicular appendages or limbs sagittal plane vertical plane that divides the body in right and left parts -right in the middle=median(midsagittal) parasagittal plane divides body into unequal right and left sides frontal(coronal) plane vertical plane that divides the body in anterior and posterior parts transverse(horizontal) plane divides the body in superior and inferior parts open body cavities -oral and digestive -nasal -orbital -middle ear not exposed body cavity synovial(joint cavities) dorsal body cavity -skull=protects the brain, brain stem, and cerebrum -vertebral column= protects the spinal cord both are continuous and the brain and spinal cord are covered by the meninges filled with cerebrospinal fluid thoracic cavity heart, lungs, esophagus, trachea abdominal cavity stomach, intestines, spleen, liver pelvic cavity urinary bladder, reproductive organs, rectum serosa membrane visceral and pariental quadrants hypochondriac regions energy the capacity to do work, necessary for many cellular functions growth, movement, synthesis of complex chemical compounds, transport potential energy stored or inactive potential to do work kinetic energy energy in action doing work chemical energy stored in the bonds of chemical substances types of energy carbohydrates+lipids+ATP electric energy due to the movement of electrons or ions (charged particles) mechanical energy energy directly involved in movement baseball player throwing a baseball radiant energy -energy that travels in waves -forms part of the electromagnetic spectrum isotopes atoms of the same element with different number of neutrons electronegativity tendency of an atom to attract towards itself the shared pair of electrons in a chemical bond covalent non polar bond bonding of 2 of the same atoms (the electronegativity is the same) covalent polar bond bond where atoms share electrons unequally H2O hydrogen bond between the partially positive hydrogen and partially negative oxygen surface tension not as strong as covalent bonds can dissolve polar compounds and salts water mixtures substances composed by 2 or more components physically intermixed solutions homogeneous mixtures that have the same composition at and point where a sample is taken tiny solute particles that do not settle or scatter light solvent substance present in the greater amount dissolving solute substance(s) present in the lesser amount dissolved colloids(emulsions) heterogeneous mixtures that have different composition depending on the point where a sample is taken larger solute particles that do not settle down or scatter light liquid to gel state(Jell-O) suspensions(emulsions) heterogenous mixtures with larger particles that tend to settle down sand and water blood chemical reactions occur when electrons of 2 atoms get shared, gained, or lost atoms must collide speed depends on temperature concentration particle size presence of catalysts(enzymes) synthesis reaction(combination) involve atoms or molecules combining to form LARGER, more complex molecules decomposition reaction involve breakdown of a molecule into SMALLER molecules or into the atoms that it is formed of exchange reaction(displacement) involve both synthesis and decomposition bonds are made and broken redox reaction atoms are reduced when they GAIN electrons (or get H+) and oxidized when they LOSE electrons (or get O-) ionize when they get dissolved in water salts acids chemical compounds that dissociate releasing H+ ions(protons) when dissolved in water (sour taste) concentration of protons determines the acidity of a solution bases chemical compounds that dissociate and accept protons (or release hydroxyl ions OH-) when dissolved in water neutralization acids and bases react to form water and the corresponding salt pH measurement of the H+ in a solution -Log[H+] buffers chemical system that prevents sudden changes of pH made of weak acid and conjugated base biochemistry -organic compound -form part of the living things -are made of Carbon -able to form 4 covalent non polar bonds monomers small unit that can join together with other small units to form polymers carbohydrates soluble in water, sweet taste -monomers=monosaccharides -name ends in "ose" -form DNA, RNA, and ATP disaccharide -2 saccharides -made by the dehydration of 2 monosaccharides glycosidic bond must by hydrolyzed before they get absorbed by the body polysaccharides -many saccharides -made by the dehydration of multiple monosaccharides -fairly insoluble -fufill storage starch(plants glycogen(animals) lipids insoluble in water, soluble on non polar solvents alcohols, ether fatty acids long hydrocarbon chain with a terminal carboxylic group triglycerides polymers of 3 fatty acids and glycerol energy storage insulation(adipose tissue) phospholipid modified triglycerides with 1 fatty acid replaced by a phosphate bound to a Nitrogen containing group cholesterol -steroid membrane made of interlocking hydrocarbon rings -synthesis of vitamin D -steroid hormones -bine salts increase the fluidity of the cellular membrane proteins polymers of amino acid monomers held together by peptide bonds 20-30% of cell mass multiple functions contain C, H, N, O and sometimes S and P shape and function due to 4 structural levels primary structure unique sequence of amino acids determine the secondary, tertiary, and quaternary structures secondary structure hydrogen bonds between the carbonyl group of 1 amino acid and the amino of another amino acid tertiary structure interactions between R-groups and the peptide backbone R-groups hydrogen bonds hydrophobic interactions Van Der Waals interactions ionic bonds covalent disulfide bonds quaternary structure bonding of 2 or more distinct polypeptide subunits fibrous proteins -strand like proteins -insoluble in water -structural mechanical support and tensile strength globular proteins -sphere like proteins -soluble in water -chemically active catalysis, transport, transmission of information T or F: protein folding is crucial to function TRUE -often spontaneous -denatured(unfolded) is unable to function nucleotides composed of Nitrogenous base, pentose sugar, and phosphate group A-T G-C ATP energy storage molecule second law of thermodynamics total entropy always increases in an isolated system isolated systems evolve spontaneously towards thermodynamic equilibrium (the state with the max entropy endergonic reaction -injecting energy -not spontaneous -organizing air particles exergonic reaction -releasing energy -spontaneous -disorganizing the air particles extracellular fluid (ECF) fluid outside the cells; includes intravascular and interstitial fluids cellular secretions contents that the cells secrete to perform specific body functions i.e. the serous fluid of the pleu extracellular matrix (ECM) bind together the cells (Cell glue). Composed of polysaccharides and protein fluid mosaic model structural model of the plasma membrane where molecules are free to move sideways within a lipid bilayer micelles small transport carriers in the intestine that enable fatty acids and other compounds to be absorbed cholesterol contribute to increase the fluidity of the cellular membrane integral proteins -embedded in the membrane -have hydrophobic and hydrophilic domain peripheral proteins attached to an integral protein functions of the mebrane proteins transport, receptors(signal transduction, enzymes) tight junctions prevent leakage of extracellular fluid across a layer of epithelial cells desmosomes (anchoring junctions) fasten cells together into strong sheets gap junctions (communicating junctions) provide cytoplasmic channels between adjacent cells diffusion movement of molecules from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration osmosis diffusion of water through a selectively permeable membrane osmolarity total concentration of all solute particles in a solution aquaporins water channel proteins hypotonic solution solute concentration is less than that inside the cell; cell gains water hypertonic solution solute concentration is greater than that inside the cell; cell loses water isotonic solution a solution whose solute concentration is equal to the solute concentration inside a cell facilitated diffusion process of diffusion in which molecules pass across the membrane through cell membrane channels carrier proteins a protein that transports substances across a cell membrane active membrane transport energy (ATP) required; occurs only in living cell membranes; substance moves up or against its concentration or pressure gradient; utilizes pumps and vesicular transport secondary active transport use pre-existing gradient to drive transport of solute vesicular transport transport of large particles and macromolecules across plasma membranes -requires ATP -endocytosis and exocytosis endocytosis a process in which a cell engulfs extracellular material through an inward folding of its plasma membrane exocytosis process by which a cell releases large amounts of material phagocytosis a type of endocytosis in which a cell engulfs large particles or whole cells pinocytosis a type of endocytosis in which the cell ingests extracellular fluid and its dissolved solutes receptor-mediated endocytosis -concentrate and engulf extracellular solutes -requires receptors that harbor the solutes paracrine signals diffuse to and affect nearby cells endocrine secrete within autocrine the cell communicates with itself