HISTORY OF ANCIENT PHILOSOPHY
(Fr. Alois Lehberger, SVD—Divine Word Seminary, SY 1979-80)
(Edited and supplemented by Fr. Antonio B. Peralta. MSCS, SY 2017-18)
(last edited 1 Sep 2018)
I. General Introduction
1. Definition: History of Philosophy is the scientific description and exposition of man’s
philosophical thought as it developed in the course of time.
1.1 The material object of this study includes: a) the lives of the philosophers, b)
the philosophical systems and opinions, and c) a critical evaluation of philosophical thought.
1.2 The formal object may either be: a) the background or context of the
period (socio-political), or b) the particular meaning or connotation the philosopher gives to his
philosophical system or opinion.
2. The sources of History of Philosophy: Since this discipline is a historical science it
will depend on documents, writings, monuments, relics, etc. We distinguish:
2.1 Primary sources—the works of the philosophers, complete or fragmentary.
If in part, the historian’s task is to establish, whenever necessary, the authenticity and the
integrity of these writings.
2.2 Secondary sources—these consist of the testimony of other persons
concerning the lives and other doctrines of the philosophers. In dealing with secondary sources
the rules of historical criticism must be applied in order to determine the reliability of their
witnesses.
3. The method to be followed in this study:
3.1 In general, must be empirical or a posteriori which is employed in all
historical researches. An a priori method cannot be used, which would consist in laying down
certain principles and deducing from them the actual succession of philosophical thought. Hegel
adopted such method in his thesis, antithesis and synthesis.
3.2 In particular, various methods may be used:
3.2.1 The chronological method proceeds according to the sequence of
time (centuries or periods).
3.2.2 The geographical method proceeds according to different places,
continents, countries, etc.
3.2.3 The topical method proceeds according to major philosophical
problems (ethical, epistemological, etc.).
1
, A combination of these methods seems best for our purpose, although chiefly the
chronological method will be followed.
4. Division: The division of the History of Philosophy into certain periods will always
be more or less arbitrary in matter of detail. This is owing to the continuity of historical
development. The stream of human thought flows continuously from one generation to another;
philosophical thought never breaks entirely with the past, it arises and succeeds the preceding
without abrupt transition and merges into one another so imperceptibly that it is rarely possible
to decide where one ends and the other begins. The more general divisions, however, are
determined by great historical events. Thus the coming of Christ divides the history into two
parts, each of which has its own subdivisions:
I. Ancient or Pre-Christian Philosophy
A. Oriental or Pre-Hellenic Philosophy
B. Greek and Greco-Oriental Philosophy (600 BC-200 AD)
C. Greco-Oriental Philosophy (200 AD-529 AD)
II. Philosophy of the Christian Era
A. Patristic Philosophy (200 AD-500 AD)
B. Medieval Philosophy (500 AD-1500 AD)
C. Modern Philosophy (1500 AD onwards: W. Turner)
Another division distinguishes three periods:
I. Ancient Philosophy
A. Greek and Greco-Roman Philosophy
1. Pre-Socratic Philosophy
2. Attic Philosophy
3. The Philosophy of Hellenism and of the Roman Empire
B. Greco-Oriental Philosophy
1. Greco-Jewish Philosophy
2. Neo-Pythagoreanism
3. Plotinus
4. The Neo-Platonic Schools
II. Medieval Philosophy
1. Patristic Philosophy (Philosophy of the Church Fathers)
2. The Philosophy of Scholasticism (mainly Thomistic)
2
, III. Modern European (Continental) Philosophy
1. Renaissance Philosophy
2. The Systems of the 17th and 18th centuries (Rationalism, Empiricism, Idealism)
3. Kant and German Idealism
4. Contemporary Philosophy
5. General Survey of the Subject Matter
Our survey merely presents a short outline of the history of ancient philosophy. Only
principal philosophers will be discussed in detail, and only the main systems and schools are
examined. The student should complete our general summary by collateral reading from the
best historians of philosophy. Our purpose is not to give a complete source in history of
philosophy, but chiefly to enable the student to place historically the various names and
systems mentioned in systematic philosophy.
We divide ancient philosophy into three chapters:
I. Greek and Greco-Roman Philosophy
1. Pre-Socratic Philosophy
2. Socrates and the Imperfect Socratic Schools
3. Plato
4. The Platonic Schools
5. Aristotle
6. The Peripatetic Schools
7. Stoicism
8. Epicureanism
9. The Sceptic [Skeptic] Schools
II. Graeco-Oriental Philosophy
1. Graeco-Jewish Philosophy
2. Neo-Pythagoreanism
3. Plotinus
4. Neo-Platonic Schools
III. Patristic Philosophy
1. General Character
2. St. Augustine
N. B. If the study would include Medieval Philosophy it should include all of Scholastic
Philosophy, beginning with the Patristic Philosophy. Some studies separate history of
philosophy into four periods: ancient, medieval, modern and contemporary.
3
, Chapter I: GREEK AND GRAECO-ROMAN PHILOSOPHY
Preliminary Remarks: Importance of Ancient Philosophy (AP)
1. We may ask ourselves, “Why should we study Ancient Philosophy (AP) in this modern
world?” The question could be answered in one sentence: AP has given to humankind the
spiritual heritage upon which Western Philosophy still nourishes itself. Considered mainly on a
quantitative basis, AP can lay claim to one half of the intellectual history of Europe, for it
stretches from 600 BC to AD 600. Of greater weight than the quantitative is the intrinsic and
qualitative value of this philosophy. AP never became antiquated.
When reading medieval authors, we find Aristotle quoted more frequently than any
contemporary writers. Platonic, Neo-Platonic and Stoic concepts are included among the
fundamentals which support the ideology of the Middle Ages. The essential ideas of modern
philosophy and of scientific thinking today trace their origin to antiquity. Notions such as a
principle, element, atom, body, spirit, soul, matter and form, potency and act, substance, idea,
category, judgment, conclusion, proof, science, hypothesis, theory, postulate, axiom—all were
developed by the Greeks. We should use them blindly and without due appreciation, if we
should not study their sources and their original meaning.
We are, moreover, indebted to AP not only for individual basic notions, but we owe it our
gratitude also for the essential philosophical branches such as logic, metaphysics, ethics,
psychology, and cosmology which it formulated and developed. In addition, antiquity saw the
development of the most diverse systems of philosophical thought: idealism, realism, scepticism,
materialism, sensism, and their hybrids. With such an understanding, we are able to conclude
the chapter on “Greek Philosophy considered past and present” (E. Hoffman) with the sentence:
It will be shown that in Greek philosophy, the fundamental ideological possibilities of
thought were thoroughly developed, the problems which are still valid first propounded,
and the various methods of solving them, methods which we still pursue, offered to the
world.
2. Division. In order to obtain an overview of the various periods, we may divide ancient Greek
and Graeco-Roman Philosophy into three main periods:
2.1 The first of these covers the time before Socrates, and for that reason it is called
“Pre-Socratic Period” and extends from 600 BC to 450 BC. It is found not in the Greek
motherland, but in the Greek colonies, in Ionia (Asia Minor), lower Italy, and Sicily.
Philosophers of this period devoted themselves almost exclusively to the study of nature
(cosmology).
2.2 The second period has been titled “Attic Philosophy” because during this time the
motherland itself begins to philosophize. Attica is the province in which Athens is found.
4
(Fr. Alois Lehberger, SVD—Divine Word Seminary, SY 1979-80)
(Edited and supplemented by Fr. Antonio B. Peralta. MSCS, SY 2017-18)
(last edited 1 Sep 2018)
I. General Introduction
1. Definition: History of Philosophy is the scientific description and exposition of man’s
philosophical thought as it developed in the course of time.
1.1 The material object of this study includes: a) the lives of the philosophers, b)
the philosophical systems and opinions, and c) a critical evaluation of philosophical thought.
1.2 The formal object may either be: a) the background or context of the
period (socio-political), or b) the particular meaning or connotation the philosopher gives to his
philosophical system or opinion.
2. The sources of History of Philosophy: Since this discipline is a historical science it
will depend on documents, writings, monuments, relics, etc. We distinguish:
2.1 Primary sources—the works of the philosophers, complete or fragmentary.
If in part, the historian’s task is to establish, whenever necessary, the authenticity and the
integrity of these writings.
2.2 Secondary sources—these consist of the testimony of other persons
concerning the lives and other doctrines of the philosophers. In dealing with secondary sources
the rules of historical criticism must be applied in order to determine the reliability of their
witnesses.
3. The method to be followed in this study:
3.1 In general, must be empirical or a posteriori which is employed in all
historical researches. An a priori method cannot be used, which would consist in laying down
certain principles and deducing from them the actual succession of philosophical thought. Hegel
adopted such method in his thesis, antithesis and synthesis.
3.2 In particular, various methods may be used:
3.2.1 The chronological method proceeds according to the sequence of
time (centuries or periods).
3.2.2 The geographical method proceeds according to different places,
continents, countries, etc.
3.2.3 The topical method proceeds according to major philosophical
problems (ethical, epistemological, etc.).
1
, A combination of these methods seems best for our purpose, although chiefly the
chronological method will be followed.
4. Division: The division of the History of Philosophy into certain periods will always
be more or less arbitrary in matter of detail. This is owing to the continuity of historical
development. The stream of human thought flows continuously from one generation to another;
philosophical thought never breaks entirely with the past, it arises and succeeds the preceding
without abrupt transition and merges into one another so imperceptibly that it is rarely possible
to decide where one ends and the other begins. The more general divisions, however, are
determined by great historical events. Thus the coming of Christ divides the history into two
parts, each of which has its own subdivisions:
I. Ancient or Pre-Christian Philosophy
A. Oriental or Pre-Hellenic Philosophy
B. Greek and Greco-Oriental Philosophy (600 BC-200 AD)
C. Greco-Oriental Philosophy (200 AD-529 AD)
II. Philosophy of the Christian Era
A. Patristic Philosophy (200 AD-500 AD)
B. Medieval Philosophy (500 AD-1500 AD)
C. Modern Philosophy (1500 AD onwards: W. Turner)
Another division distinguishes three periods:
I. Ancient Philosophy
A. Greek and Greco-Roman Philosophy
1. Pre-Socratic Philosophy
2. Attic Philosophy
3. The Philosophy of Hellenism and of the Roman Empire
B. Greco-Oriental Philosophy
1. Greco-Jewish Philosophy
2. Neo-Pythagoreanism
3. Plotinus
4. The Neo-Platonic Schools
II. Medieval Philosophy
1. Patristic Philosophy (Philosophy of the Church Fathers)
2. The Philosophy of Scholasticism (mainly Thomistic)
2
, III. Modern European (Continental) Philosophy
1. Renaissance Philosophy
2. The Systems of the 17th and 18th centuries (Rationalism, Empiricism, Idealism)
3. Kant and German Idealism
4. Contemporary Philosophy
5. General Survey of the Subject Matter
Our survey merely presents a short outline of the history of ancient philosophy. Only
principal philosophers will be discussed in detail, and only the main systems and schools are
examined. The student should complete our general summary by collateral reading from the
best historians of philosophy. Our purpose is not to give a complete source in history of
philosophy, but chiefly to enable the student to place historically the various names and
systems mentioned in systematic philosophy.
We divide ancient philosophy into three chapters:
I. Greek and Greco-Roman Philosophy
1. Pre-Socratic Philosophy
2. Socrates and the Imperfect Socratic Schools
3. Plato
4. The Platonic Schools
5. Aristotle
6. The Peripatetic Schools
7. Stoicism
8. Epicureanism
9. The Sceptic [Skeptic] Schools
II. Graeco-Oriental Philosophy
1. Graeco-Jewish Philosophy
2. Neo-Pythagoreanism
3. Plotinus
4. Neo-Platonic Schools
III. Patristic Philosophy
1. General Character
2. St. Augustine
N. B. If the study would include Medieval Philosophy it should include all of Scholastic
Philosophy, beginning with the Patristic Philosophy. Some studies separate history of
philosophy into four periods: ancient, medieval, modern and contemporary.
3
, Chapter I: GREEK AND GRAECO-ROMAN PHILOSOPHY
Preliminary Remarks: Importance of Ancient Philosophy (AP)
1. We may ask ourselves, “Why should we study Ancient Philosophy (AP) in this modern
world?” The question could be answered in one sentence: AP has given to humankind the
spiritual heritage upon which Western Philosophy still nourishes itself. Considered mainly on a
quantitative basis, AP can lay claim to one half of the intellectual history of Europe, for it
stretches from 600 BC to AD 600. Of greater weight than the quantitative is the intrinsic and
qualitative value of this philosophy. AP never became antiquated.
When reading medieval authors, we find Aristotle quoted more frequently than any
contemporary writers. Platonic, Neo-Platonic and Stoic concepts are included among the
fundamentals which support the ideology of the Middle Ages. The essential ideas of modern
philosophy and of scientific thinking today trace their origin to antiquity. Notions such as a
principle, element, atom, body, spirit, soul, matter and form, potency and act, substance, idea,
category, judgment, conclusion, proof, science, hypothesis, theory, postulate, axiom—all were
developed by the Greeks. We should use them blindly and without due appreciation, if we
should not study their sources and their original meaning.
We are, moreover, indebted to AP not only for individual basic notions, but we owe it our
gratitude also for the essential philosophical branches such as logic, metaphysics, ethics,
psychology, and cosmology which it formulated and developed. In addition, antiquity saw the
development of the most diverse systems of philosophical thought: idealism, realism, scepticism,
materialism, sensism, and their hybrids. With such an understanding, we are able to conclude
the chapter on “Greek Philosophy considered past and present” (E. Hoffman) with the sentence:
It will be shown that in Greek philosophy, the fundamental ideological possibilities of
thought were thoroughly developed, the problems which are still valid first propounded,
and the various methods of solving them, methods which we still pursue, offered to the
world.
2. Division. In order to obtain an overview of the various periods, we may divide ancient Greek
and Graeco-Roman Philosophy into three main periods:
2.1 The first of these covers the time before Socrates, and for that reason it is called
“Pre-Socratic Period” and extends from 600 BC to 450 BC. It is found not in the Greek
motherland, but in the Greek colonies, in Ionia (Asia Minor), lower Italy, and Sicily.
Philosophers of this period devoted themselves almost exclusively to the study of nature
(cosmology).
2.2 The second period has been titled “Attic Philosophy” because during this time the
motherland itself begins to philosophize. Attica is the province in which Athens is found.
4
