GENERAL PRINCIPLES
A. BIOCHEMISTRY
● DNA molecular structure, types of mutation, repair mechanism, key enzymes,
transcription, translation, protein synthesis
● Histone structure, activation and deactivation
● Types of RNA polymerases and DNA polymerases, similarities and differences,
functions.
● Purine and Pyrimidine synthesis: key limiting enzymes, cofactors, molecules
involved
● Nucleotides vs nucleosides vs synthesis of genetics bases
● Purine salvage pathway
● RNA processing and regulation
● Lac operon
● Spliceosome
● Ribosome structure, subtypes, cell origins
● t-RNA, function, codons, anticodon, sequences, start/stop codons
● Protein synthesis : initiation, regulation and termination
● Post Translational modifications
● Cell structure, organelles and their intrinsic function.
● Cytoskeleton, microtubules and cell cycle: regulatory signals, kinases and
cyclins.
● Peroxisome: function, related pathologies (HIGH YIELD)
● Collagen / Elastin synthesis and related pathologies
● Laboratory techniques: PCR, ELISA, Flow cytometry, Microarrays, different types
of blotting, FISH, karyotyping
● Imprinting disorders
● Types of inheritance and chart genetic frequencies
● Henderson hasselbalch equation
● Genetic terminology
● Cystic fibrosis (HIGH YIELD)
● Muscular dystrophies and their genetics implication (HIGH YIELD)
● I-cell Disease
● Rett syndrome
● Fragile X syndrome
● Trisomies 21, 18 and 13: markers, signs and symptoms, genetic pathways
involved
● Cri du chat syndrome
● Williams syndrome
● Fat soluble vitamins: molecular function, deficiencies and intoxication
● Water soluble vitamin: molecular function, deficiencies and intoxication
● Malnutrition anomalies
● Ethanol mechanism
, ● Glycolysis, krebs, oxidative phosphorylation, gluconeogenesis: all key enzyme
rate limiting steps, biological function and implication
● Hexokinase vs Glucokinase: Vmax, Km, and target organs, enzymes and
function
● Pyruvate Metabolic pathway
● Pentose phosphate pathway
● G6P deficiency
● Fructose metabolic pathologies (HIGH YIELD)
● Sorbitol pathway
● Lactase deficiency
● Amino acids: acid, bases, neutral, essential vs nonessential, and metabolic
synthesis pathways, derivatives and key cofactors involved
● Urea cycle, ammonia cycle and related pathologies
● Catecholamine synthesis, cofactors involved, and enzymes
● PKU: enzymes deficiencies, signs and symptoms, treatment
● Maple syrup syndrome, Alkaptonuria, Hyperammonemia, Homocystinuria and
Cystinuria, Propionic acidemia, Pyruvate kinase deficiency
● Glucagon synthesis: insulin regulation, key enzymes, and metabolic pathway
● Glycogen storage disease (HIGH YIELD)
● LSD diseases (High yield)
● Ketone body formation: synthesis and degradation pathways
● Fed vs Fasted state
● Lipid transport, fatty acid synthesis and degradation, lipoproteins and cholesterol
metabolic pathway.
● Familial dyslipidemias
B. IMMUNOLOGY
● Lymph node structure, histological analysis, cell locations
● Palpable vs non palpable lymphs and drainage locations
● Spleen structure, histological analysis and cell locations
● Innate vs Adaptive immunity
● MHC class 1 vs class 2: function, similarities and differences, molecular structure
function.
● HLA subtypes and related disease
● T cells: regulatory cytokines, interleukins, immunological pathways, positive and
negative selection in cell production, cytotoxic, regulatory and naive cells.
● T cells vs B cells: membrane markers, activation and maturation, costimulatory
signals
● Class switching and somatic hypermutation
● VDJ genetic recombination
● Immunoglobulin structure, function, heavy and light chains
● Classical vs alternative vs MAC complement and regulatory/ inhibitory pathways
● Antibody functions and different subtypes
● Complement disorders
, ● Interleukins and cytokines functions
● T cell surface protein markers
● Anergy, cell memory and antigen presentation
● Active vs passive immunity
● VAccination: live vs attenuated vaccines, virus related, toxoid vaccines,
polysaccharide, subunit and recombinant vaccines.
● Types of hypersensitivity
● Blood transfusion reactions
● Autoantibodies and related pathologies
● Immunodeficiencies
● Transplant rejections
C. MICROBIOLOGY
● Bacterial cell structure: gram positive vs negative: family, structures, similarities
and differences
● Gram stains and cell culture/agars
● Bacterial virulence factors
● Intracellular vs extracellular bacteria
● Encapsulated bacteria
● Aerobes vs Anaerobes
● Staphylococcus vs Streptococcus: family, hemolysis, bacterial manifestations and
diseases related
● Clostridium family
● Bacterial genetic transformation, conjugation, transduction, transposition
● Exotoxins vs Endotoxins: pathological features, biological manifestations and
organisms related
● Corynebacterium, Listeria, Nocardia, Actinomyces
● Tuberculosis: primary, secondary and miliary TB
● Gram negative rods, diplococcus and bacilli cell features
● Enterococci family
● Mycoplasma
● H influenza
● Bukorderia
● Brucella, Legionella, Pseudomonas
● Salmonella vs Shigella
● E. coli family
● Klebsiella, Campylobacter, Vibrio, Helicobacter pylori
● Spirochetes, Gardenella
● Lyme Disease
● Leptospirosis: Weils disease
● Chlamydia serotypes, family and manifestations
● Syphilis: Primary , Secondary, Tertiary, diagnosis and features
● Jarish-Herxheimer reaction
● Zoonotic bacteria
, ● Vector borne disease: Lice, ticks and fleas
● Systemic mycosis: manifestation, regional zones, modes of transmission,
pathological features
● Opportunistic fungal infections: signs and symptoms, manifestations, diagnosis,
pathological features, treatment.
● CNS infection protozoa
● Hematological protozoa
● Protozoa visceral infection and others
● Nematodes, cestodes, trematodes: diagnosis, pathological features, signs and
symptoms, transmission routes and treatment
● Ectoparasites
● Viral structural features, morphology, genetics
● Naked vs Enveloped viruses
● Dna vs RNA viruses: manifestation, families, signs and symptoms, pathological
features
● Herpesviridae family
● Hepatitis viruses: families, pathological features, transmission routes, serological
markers of Hep B
● HIV: sign symptoms, manifestations, immunological features and receptors,
treatment, opportunistic infections
● Food borne illnesses
● Diarrheal diseases: bloody vs watery
● Causes of pneumonia: common cause organism, ages, pathological features
● Meningitis and cerebrospinal fluid findings: bacteria, viral and fungal
● Types of rashes, distribution, causes and manifestation, organisms related
● Urinary tract infection
● Vaginal diseases
● TORCH infections
● Bugs affection in unvaccinated individuals
D. PATHOLOGY
● Cell structure and intrinsic morphology, environmental adaptations and injury
response.
● Apoptosis: Intrinsic vs Extrinsic
● Necrosis: Coagulative, Liquefactive, Fat, Fibrinoid, and Gangrenous
● Ischemia, watershed zones and vulnerability
● Red vs Pale infarct
● Types of calcification
● Lipofuscin
● Ionizing radiation
● Amyloidosis: types, pathological features, structures affected, genetics and
histological manifestation.
● Inflammation and its variants, Acute phase reactants, ESR
, ●Acute vs Chronic Inflammation: pathological features, cellular pathways, cells
involved, physical features and relationships.
● Leukocyte extravasation process: Marg / Rolling, Tight binding adhesion,
Diapedesis/ transmigration, and Migration. Learn all the cells involved and the
receptors for each adequate step of the process .
● Wound healing and tissue mediator molecules. Phase of wound healing
throughout time.
● Noninfectious vs Infectious causes of granulating inflammation (Non Caseating
vs caseating), cell involvements, immune responses, pathologies related to each.
● Scar formation: Hypertrophic vs Keloid
● Neoplasia, Dysplasia, Metaplasia: genetics, receptors involved, pathological
features, diseases related to each important process (tumors, syndromes,
autoimmune diseases)
● Tumor grade vs stage
● Cancer hallmarks and disease related with their respective pathological features
● Immune checkpoint regulation, interaction, cell involvement and how cancer
escapes this mechanism
● Cancer epidemiology: incidence, recurrence, most common causes either by
age, gender, ethnicity and geographical regions. Identify metastases routes for
various tumor based on their location and spread (lymphatic or hematogenous)
● Oncogenes vs Tumor suppressor genes: genetics, pathological features,
receptors involved, diseases related.
● Carcinogenic molecules
● Oncogenic microorganisms, receptors involved, diseases related and exposure
relationship to others pathologies.
● Serum tumor markers: genetics, tumors/disease involved, sensitivity and
specificity to each diagnosis.
● Immunohistochemical stains to identify tumors and their respective pathologies.
● Paraneoplastic syndromes: hormones related, pathological features, signs and
symptoms, genetic involvement, organs involved.
● Normal aging process for each individual organ system and changes that ocurr
with time.
E. PHARMACOLOGY
● Enzyme Kinetics: Michaelis-Menten vs Lineweaver-burk plot
● Competitive inhibitors (reversible and irreversible), Noncompetitive inhibitors:
Changes in Km, Vmax, Substrate and active site location and how it affects
enzyme kinetics.
● Bioavailability, Vd, Clearance, Halflife, Dosage Calculation (loading and
maintenance dose)
● Phase 1 and Phase 2 drug metabolism
● Zero order vs First order kinetics
● Drug elimination: acid vs basic molecules
● Efficacy vs Potency: CIR, CII, NCI
● Therapeutic index
, ● Autonomic receptors, drugs, acetylcholine metabolism, muscarinic agonist and
antagonist receptors, cellular receptor response, mechanisms and treatment
conditions.
● Adrenergic receptors: receptor locations, response, mechanisms of action, drug
involvement and treatment condition for each individual pharmaceutical.
● G- protein second messenger receptors, mechanisms of action, anatomical
location and relationship to each pharmaceutical drug either if its an inhibitor or
promoter.
● Cholinomimetic agents, direct and indirect agonist drugs, usage, and receptors
involved.
● Acetylcholinesterase poisoning: signs and symptoms, treatment and
management.
● Atropine, sympathomimetics (direct and indirect), usage, mechanism of action,
receptors involved, management and treatment conditions.
● Physiologic effects of sympathomimetics on Systolic, diastolic, MAP, pulse
pressure and CO.
● Alpha 1 vs alpha 2, sympatholytics, receptors involved, treatment and
management conditions.
● Beta - Blockers: receptors involved, usage, selective or nonselective
mechanisms and adverse effects.
● Phosphodiester inhibitors: usage, mechanism of action, side effects, treatment
and management condition, pathologies related to usage of each one.
● Seafood toxins
● Age-related changes in pharmacodynamic and Beers criteria
● Treatment for toxicities
● Drug adverse effects and toxicity for each pharmaceutical in all organ system.
● Cytochrome promoter vs inhibitors vs substrate drugs
● Sulfa drugs and pathological features related.
ORGAN SYSTEM
A. CARDIOLOGY
● Heart development morphogenesis (valve, chamber, vessels and their
derivatives) and embryology
● Umbilical cord arteries and vein pathways (fetal circulation)
● Aortic arch derivatives
● Anatomy and chamber positioning
● CO, HR, preload and afterload physiological changes
● Ejection fraction, pulse pressure and MAP
● Starling, cardiac and vascular function curves changes
● Cardiac vessel distribution resistance in parallel
A. BIOCHEMISTRY
● DNA molecular structure, types of mutation, repair mechanism, key enzymes,
transcription, translation, protein synthesis
● Histone structure, activation and deactivation
● Types of RNA polymerases and DNA polymerases, similarities and differences,
functions.
● Purine and Pyrimidine synthesis: key limiting enzymes, cofactors, molecules
involved
● Nucleotides vs nucleosides vs synthesis of genetics bases
● Purine salvage pathway
● RNA processing and regulation
● Lac operon
● Spliceosome
● Ribosome structure, subtypes, cell origins
● t-RNA, function, codons, anticodon, sequences, start/stop codons
● Protein synthesis : initiation, regulation and termination
● Post Translational modifications
● Cell structure, organelles and their intrinsic function.
● Cytoskeleton, microtubules and cell cycle: regulatory signals, kinases and
cyclins.
● Peroxisome: function, related pathologies (HIGH YIELD)
● Collagen / Elastin synthesis and related pathologies
● Laboratory techniques: PCR, ELISA, Flow cytometry, Microarrays, different types
of blotting, FISH, karyotyping
● Imprinting disorders
● Types of inheritance and chart genetic frequencies
● Henderson hasselbalch equation
● Genetic terminology
● Cystic fibrosis (HIGH YIELD)
● Muscular dystrophies and their genetics implication (HIGH YIELD)
● I-cell Disease
● Rett syndrome
● Fragile X syndrome
● Trisomies 21, 18 and 13: markers, signs and symptoms, genetic pathways
involved
● Cri du chat syndrome
● Williams syndrome
● Fat soluble vitamins: molecular function, deficiencies and intoxication
● Water soluble vitamin: molecular function, deficiencies and intoxication
● Malnutrition anomalies
● Ethanol mechanism
, ● Glycolysis, krebs, oxidative phosphorylation, gluconeogenesis: all key enzyme
rate limiting steps, biological function and implication
● Hexokinase vs Glucokinase: Vmax, Km, and target organs, enzymes and
function
● Pyruvate Metabolic pathway
● Pentose phosphate pathway
● G6P deficiency
● Fructose metabolic pathologies (HIGH YIELD)
● Sorbitol pathway
● Lactase deficiency
● Amino acids: acid, bases, neutral, essential vs nonessential, and metabolic
synthesis pathways, derivatives and key cofactors involved
● Urea cycle, ammonia cycle and related pathologies
● Catecholamine synthesis, cofactors involved, and enzymes
● PKU: enzymes deficiencies, signs and symptoms, treatment
● Maple syrup syndrome, Alkaptonuria, Hyperammonemia, Homocystinuria and
Cystinuria, Propionic acidemia, Pyruvate kinase deficiency
● Glucagon synthesis: insulin regulation, key enzymes, and metabolic pathway
● Glycogen storage disease (HIGH YIELD)
● LSD diseases (High yield)
● Ketone body formation: synthesis and degradation pathways
● Fed vs Fasted state
● Lipid transport, fatty acid synthesis and degradation, lipoproteins and cholesterol
metabolic pathway.
● Familial dyslipidemias
B. IMMUNOLOGY
● Lymph node structure, histological analysis, cell locations
● Palpable vs non palpable lymphs and drainage locations
● Spleen structure, histological analysis and cell locations
● Innate vs Adaptive immunity
● MHC class 1 vs class 2: function, similarities and differences, molecular structure
function.
● HLA subtypes and related disease
● T cells: regulatory cytokines, interleukins, immunological pathways, positive and
negative selection in cell production, cytotoxic, regulatory and naive cells.
● T cells vs B cells: membrane markers, activation and maturation, costimulatory
signals
● Class switching and somatic hypermutation
● VDJ genetic recombination
● Immunoglobulin structure, function, heavy and light chains
● Classical vs alternative vs MAC complement and regulatory/ inhibitory pathways
● Antibody functions and different subtypes
● Complement disorders
, ● Interleukins and cytokines functions
● T cell surface protein markers
● Anergy, cell memory and antigen presentation
● Active vs passive immunity
● VAccination: live vs attenuated vaccines, virus related, toxoid vaccines,
polysaccharide, subunit and recombinant vaccines.
● Types of hypersensitivity
● Blood transfusion reactions
● Autoantibodies and related pathologies
● Immunodeficiencies
● Transplant rejections
C. MICROBIOLOGY
● Bacterial cell structure: gram positive vs negative: family, structures, similarities
and differences
● Gram stains and cell culture/agars
● Bacterial virulence factors
● Intracellular vs extracellular bacteria
● Encapsulated bacteria
● Aerobes vs Anaerobes
● Staphylococcus vs Streptococcus: family, hemolysis, bacterial manifestations and
diseases related
● Clostridium family
● Bacterial genetic transformation, conjugation, transduction, transposition
● Exotoxins vs Endotoxins: pathological features, biological manifestations and
organisms related
● Corynebacterium, Listeria, Nocardia, Actinomyces
● Tuberculosis: primary, secondary and miliary TB
● Gram negative rods, diplococcus and bacilli cell features
● Enterococci family
● Mycoplasma
● H influenza
● Bukorderia
● Brucella, Legionella, Pseudomonas
● Salmonella vs Shigella
● E. coli family
● Klebsiella, Campylobacter, Vibrio, Helicobacter pylori
● Spirochetes, Gardenella
● Lyme Disease
● Leptospirosis: Weils disease
● Chlamydia serotypes, family and manifestations
● Syphilis: Primary , Secondary, Tertiary, diagnosis and features
● Jarish-Herxheimer reaction
● Zoonotic bacteria
, ● Vector borne disease: Lice, ticks and fleas
● Systemic mycosis: manifestation, regional zones, modes of transmission,
pathological features
● Opportunistic fungal infections: signs and symptoms, manifestations, diagnosis,
pathological features, treatment.
● CNS infection protozoa
● Hematological protozoa
● Protozoa visceral infection and others
● Nematodes, cestodes, trematodes: diagnosis, pathological features, signs and
symptoms, transmission routes and treatment
● Ectoparasites
● Viral structural features, morphology, genetics
● Naked vs Enveloped viruses
● Dna vs RNA viruses: manifestation, families, signs and symptoms, pathological
features
● Herpesviridae family
● Hepatitis viruses: families, pathological features, transmission routes, serological
markers of Hep B
● HIV: sign symptoms, manifestations, immunological features and receptors,
treatment, opportunistic infections
● Food borne illnesses
● Diarrheal diseases: bloody vs watery
● Causes of pneumonia: common cause organism, ages, pathological features
● Meningitis and cerebrospinal fluid findings: bacteria, viral and fungal
● Types of rashes, distribution, causes and manifestation, organisms related
● Urinary tract infection
● Vaginal diseases
● TORCH infections
● Bugs affection in unvaccinated individuals
D. PATHOLOGY
● Cell structure and intrinsic morphology, environmental adaptations and injury
response.
● Apoptosis: Intrinsic vs Extrinsic
● Necrosis: Coagulative, Liquefactive, Fat, Fibrinoid, and Gangrenous
● Ischemia, watershed zones and vulnerability
● Red vs Pale infarct
● Types of calcification
● Lipofuscin
● Ionizing radiation
● Amyloidosis: types, pathological features, structures affected, genetics and
histological manifestation.
● Inflammation and its variants, Acute phase reactants, ESR
, ●Acute vs Chronic Inflammation: pathological features, cellular pathways, cells
involved, physical features and relationships.
● Leukocyte extravasation process: Marg / Rolling, Tight binding adhesion,
Diapedesis/ transmigration, and Migration. Learn all the cells involved and the
receptors for each adequate step of the process .
● Wound healing and tissue mediator molecules. Phase of wound healing
throughout time.
● Noninfectious vs Infectious causes of granulating inflammation (Non Caseating
vs caseating), cell involvements, immune responses, pathologies related to each.
● Scar formation: Hypertrophic vs Keloid
● Neoplasia, Dysplasia, Metaplasia: genetics, receptors involved, pathological
features, diseases related to each important process (tumors, syndromes,
autoimmune diseases)
● Tumor grade vs stage
● Cancer hallmarks and disease related with their respective pathological features
● Immune checkpoint regulation, interaction, cell involvement and how cancer
escapes this mechanism
● Cancer epidemiology: incidence, recurrence, most common causes either by
age, gender, ethnicity and geographical regions. Identify metastases routes for
various tumor based on their location and spread (lymphatic or hematogenous)
● Oncogenes vs Tumor suppressor genes: genetics, pathological features,
receptors involved, diseases related.
● Carcinogenic molecules
● Oncogenic microorganisms, receptors involved, diseases related and exposure
relationship to others pathologies.
● Serum tumor markers: genetics, tumors/disease involved, sensitivity and
specificity to each diagnosis.
● Immunohistochemical stains to identify tumors and their respective pathologies.
● Paraneoplastic syndromes: hormones related, pathological features, signs and
symptoms, genetic involvement, organs involved.
● Normal aging process for each individual organ system and changes that ocurr
with time.
E. PHARMACOLOGY
● Enzyme Kinetics: Michaelis-Menten vs Lineweaver-burk plot
● Competitive inhibitors (reversible and irreversible), Noncompetitive inhibitors:
Changes in Km, Vmax, Substrate and active site location and how it affects
enzyme kinetics.
● Bioavailability, Vd, Clearance, Halflife, Dosage Calculation (loading and
maintenance dose)
● Phase 1 and Phase 2 drug metabolism
● Zero order vs First order kinetics
● Drug elimination: acid vs basic molecules
● Efficacy vs Potency: CIR, CII, NCI
● Therapeutic index
, ● Autonomic receptors, drugs, acetylcholine metabolism, muscarinic agonist and
antagonist receptors, cellular receptor response, mechanisms and treatment
conditions.
● Adrenergic receptors: receptor locations, response, mechanisms of action, drug
involvement and treatment condition for each individual pharmaceutical.
● G- protein second messenger receptors, mechanisms of action, anatomical
location and relationship to each pharmaceutical drug either if its an inhibitor or
promoter.
● Cholinomimetic agents, direct and indirect agonist drugs, usage, and receptors
involved.
● Acetylcholinesterase poisoning: signs and symptoms, treatment and
management.
● Atropine, sympathomimetics (direct and indirect), usage, mechanism of action,
receptors involved, management and treatment conditions.
● Physiologic effects of sympathomimetics on Systolic, diastolic, MAP, pulse
pressure and CO.
● Alpha 1 vs alpha 2, sympatholytics, receptors involved, treatment and
management conditions.
● Beta - Blockers: receptors involved, usage, selective or nonselective
mechanisms and adverse effects.
● Phosphodiester inhibitors: usage, mechanism of action, side effects, treatment
and management condition, pathologies related to usage of each one.
● Seafood toxins
● Age-related changes in pharmacodynamic and Beers criteria
● Treatment for toxicities
● Drug adverse effects and toxicity for each pharmaceutical in all organ system.
● Cytochrome promoter vs inhibitors vs substrate drugs
● Sulfa drugs and pathological features related.
ORGAN SYSTEM
A. CARDIOLOGY
● Heart development morphogenesis (valve, chamber, vessels and their
derivatives) and embryology
● Umbilical cord arteries and vein pathways (fetal circulation)
● Aortic arch derivatives
● Anatomy and chamber positioning
● CO, HR, preload and afterload physiological changes
● Ejection fraction, pulse pressure and MAP
● Starling, cardiac and vascular function curves changes
● Cardiac vessel distribution resistance in parallel
