KOM: RESEARCH METHODS
1: PSYCHOLOGY IS A WAY OF THINKING
Psychologists à empiricists
= basing one’s conclusions on systematic observations
NO intuitive à they have conducted studies on people and animals
acting in their natural environments or in specially designed
situations
Research Producers, Research Consumers
Producers of research = studying, documenting, administering, observing,
and analyzing
Consumers of research = reading about research so they can later apply it
to their work, hobbies, relationships, or personal growth
Many psychologists engage in both roles
Producer role à you need to know how to randomly assign people to
groups, how to measure attitudes accurately, or how to interpret results
from a graph
The skills you acquire by conducting research can teach you how
psychological scientists ask questions and how they think about
their discipline
EX work in a research lab or laboratories
Consumer role à how can you tell the good research information from the
bad?
Ask the appropriate questions à to evaluate information correctly
Evidence-based treatments = therapies that are supported by
research
o Licensure in helping professions requires knowing the research
behind these treatments
EX social worker, teacher, sales representative, human resources
professional, entrepreneur, parent
Critical consumer of information à you can decide when the research
supports some programs, but not others
EX mindfulness supports programs for study skills
o BUT a crime-prevention program increases criminal activity
How Scientists Approach Their Work
1) Empiricists in their investigations
Systematically observe the world
Empiricism = involves using evidence from the senses (sight,
hearing, touch) or from instruments that assist the senses (such as
thermometers, timers, photographs, weight scales, and
questionnaires) as the basis for conclusions
o ALSO empirical method or empirical research
o Aim to be systematic, rigorous, and to make their work
independently verifiable by other observers or scientists
,2) Test theories through research
AND revise their theories based on the resulting data
Theory-Data Cycle à scientists collect data to test, change, or update
their theories
The cupboard theory vs. the contact comfort theory
o The cupboard theory of mother-infant attachment = mother is
valuable to a baby mammal because she is a source of food
Baby animal gets hungry, gets food by nursing, and
experiences a pleasant feeling (reduced hunger)
SO mother is “cupboard” from which food comes
o The contact comfort theory = babies are attached to their
mothers because of the comfort of cozy touch
BY Harry Harlow (1958)
o TEST: separate the two influences – food and contact comfort
3 possible outcomes:
Contact comfort theory would be supported if the
babies spent most of the time clinging to the cloth
mother
Cupboard theory would be supported if the babies
spent most of the time clinging to the wire mother
Neither would be supported if monkeys divided
their time equally between the two mothers
Theory, hypothesis, and data
- Theory = a set of statements that describes general principles about
how variables relate to one another
o EX Harlow’s theory à about the overwhelming importance of
bodily contact (as opposed to simple nourishment) in forming
attachments
- Hypothesis (prediction) = the specific outcome the researcher
expects to observe in a study if the theory is accurate
o EX Harlow’s hypothesis à babies would spend more time on
the cozy mother than the wire mother
o A single theory can lead to a large number of hypotheses
BECAUSE a single study is not sufficient to test the
entire theory – it is intended to test only part of it
- Data = are a set of observations
o EX Harlow’s data à the amount of time the baby monkeys
stayed on each mother
o May either support or challenge the theory
Depending on whether the data are consistent with
hypotheses based on a theory
Features of good scientific theories
- Good theories are supported by data
- Good theories are falsifiable
o Falsifiability = a theory must lead to hypotheses that, when
tested, could actually fail to support the theory
NOT falsifiable if there is no physical evidence
- Good theories have parsimony
, o Parsimony = simple theory
Theories don’t prove anything
- Word prove is not used in science
o BUT they say that some data support or are consistent with a
theory
o OR some data are inconsistent with or complicate a theory
o Scientists evaluate their theories based on the weight of the
evidence, for and against
3) Empirical approach to both applied research
Which directly targets real-world problems
AND basic research, which is intended to contribute to the general
body of knowledge
Applied research = is done with a practical problem in mind; the
researchers conduct their work in a particular real-world context
o EX if a school district’s new method of teaching language arts
is working better than the former one
o EX test the efficacy of a treatment for depression in a sample
of trauma survivors
Basic research = the goal is to enhance the general body of
knowledge
o NOT intended to address a specific, practical problem
o EX understand the structure of the visual system, the capacity
of human memory, the motivations of a depressed person, or
the limitations of the infant attachment system
Translational research = the use of lessons from basic research to
develop and test applications to health care, psychotherapy, or other
forms of treatment and intervention
o Represents a dynamic bridge from basic to applied research
o EX basic research on the biochemistry of cell membranes
might be translated into a new drug for schizophrenia
o EX basic research on how mindfulness changes people’s
patterns of attention might be translated into a study skills
intervention
4) Go further: test why, when, or for whom an effect works
Each study leads to ask a new question
5) Make their work public
Submit their results to journals for review and respond to the
opinions of other scientists
Sharing findings of psychological research with the popular media,
who may or may not get the story right
Journal = come out every month and contain articles written by
various qualified contributors
o Articles in a scientific journal à peer-reviewed
= the journal editor sends the submission to three or
four experts on the subject
, Peer reviewers à kept anonymous
SO they can give an honest assessment of the
research
From Journal to Journalism
- Journalism = includes the kinds of news and commentary that most
of us read or hear on television, in magazines and newspapers, and
on Internet sites
o Usually written by journalists or laypeople, not scientists
o Meant to reach the general public à easy to access, and
understanding does not require specialized education
o How does the media find out about the latest scientific
findings?
Journalist turns research into a news story by
summarizing it for a popular audience, giving it an
interesting headline, and writing about it using
nontechnical terms
- Benefits and risks of journalism coverage
o Benefit: psychologists can benefit when journalists publicize
their research
1. Is the Story Important?
When journalists report on a study, have they
chosen research that has been conducted
rigorously, that tests an important question, and
that has been peer-reviewed? Or have they chosen
a study simply because it’s cute or eye-catching?
EX “You need to stop hugging your dog, study
finds”
o NOT peer-reviewed
o AND author left out important details
2. Is the Story Accurate?
Even when journalists report on reliable, important
research, they don’t always get the story right
o BECAUSE no scientific training, motivation,
or time before deadline to understand the
original science very well
o OR dumbs down details of a study to make it
more accessible to a general audience
o AND sometimes a journalist wraps up the
details of a study with a more dramatic
headline than the research can support
“Mozart effect” = example of how journalists might misrepresent science
when they write for a popular audience
2: SOURCES OF INFORMATION: WHY RESEARCH IS
BEST AND HOW TO FIND IT
Three sources of evidence for people’s beliefs
- Experience
1: PSYCHOLOGY IS A WAY OF THINKING
Psychologists à empiricists
= basing one’s conclusions on systematic observations
NO intuitive à they have conducted studies on people and animals
acting in their natural environments or in specially designed
situations
Research Producers, Research Consumers
Producers of research = studying, documenting, administering, observing,
and analyzing
Consumers of research = reading about research so they can later apply it
to their work, hobbies, relationships, or personal growth
Many psychologists engage in both roles
Producer role à you need to know how to randomly assign people to
groups, how to measure attitudes accurately, or how to interpret results
from a graph
The skills you acquire by conducting research can teach you how
psychological scientists ask questions and how they think about
their discipline
EX work in a research lab or laboratories
Consumer role à how can you tell the good research information from the
bad?
Ask the appropriate questions à to evaluate information correctly
Evidence-based treatments = therapies that are supported by
research
o Licensure in helping professions requires knowing the research
behind these treatments
EX social worker, teacher, sales representative, human resources
professional, entrepreneur, parent
Critical consumer of information à you can decide when the research
supports some programs, but not others
EX mindfulness supports programs for study skills
o BUT a crime-prevention program increases criminal activity
How Scientists Approach Their Work
1) Empiricists in their investigations
Systematically observe the world
Empiricism = involves using evidence from the senses (sight,
hearing, touch) or from instruments that assist the senses (such as
thermometers, timers, photographs, weight scales, and
questionnaires) as the basis for conclusions
o ALSO empirical method or empirical research
o Aim to be systematic, rigorous, and to make their work
independently verifiable by other observers or scientists
,2) Test theories through research
AND revise their theories based on the resulting data
Theory-Data Cycle à scientists collect data to test, change, or update
their theories
The cupboard theory vs. the contact comfort theory
o The cupboard theory of mother-infant attachment = mother is
valuable to a baby mammal because she is a source of food
Baby animal gets hungry, gets food by nursing, and
experiences a pleasant feeling (reduced hunger)
SO mother is “cupboard” from which food comes
o The contact comfort theory = babies are attached to their
mothers because of the comfort of cozy touch
BY Harry Harlow (1958)
o TEST: separate the two influences – food and contact comfort
3 possible outcomes:
Contact comfort theory would be supported if the
babies spent most of the time clinging to the cloth
mother
Cupboard theory would be supported if the babies
spent most of the time clinging to the wire mother
Neither would be supported if monkeys divided
their time equally between the two mothers
Theory, hypothesis, and data
- Theory = a set of statements that describes general principles about
how variables relate to one another
o EX Harlow’s theory à about the overwhelming importance of
bodily contact (as opposed to simple nourishment) in forming
attachments
- Hypothesis (prediction) = the specific outcome the researcher
expects to observe in a study if the theory is accurate
o EX Harlow’s hypothesis à babies would spend more time on
the cozy mother than the wire mother
o A single theory can lead to a large number of hypotheses
BECAUSE a single study is not sufficient to test the
entire theory – it is intended to test only part of it
- Data = are a set of observations
o EX Harlow’s data à the amount of time the baby monkeys
stayed on each mother
o May either support or challenge the theory
Depending on whether the data are consistent with
hypotheses based on a theory
Features of good scientific theories
- Good theories are supported by data
- Good theories are falsifiable
o Falsifiability = a theory must lead to hypotheses that, when
tested, could actually fail to support the theory
NOT falsifiable if there is no physical evidence
- Good theories have parsimony
, o Parsimony = simple theory
Theories don’t prove anything
- Word prove is not used in science
o BUT they say that some data support or are consistent with a
theory
o OR some data are inconsistent with or complicate a theory
o Scientists evaluate their theories based on the weight of the
evidence, for and against
3) Empirical approach to both applied research
Which directly targets real-world problems
AND basic research, which is intended to contribute to the general
body of knowledge
Applied research = is done with a practical problem in mind; the
researchers conduct their work in a particular real-world context
o EX if a school district’s new method of teaching language arts
is working better than the former one
o EX test the efficacy of a treatment for depression in a sample
of trauma survivors
Basic research = the goal is to enhance the general body of
knowledge
o NOT intended to address a specific, practical problem
o EX understand the structure of the visual system, the capacity
of human memory, the motivations of a depressed person, or
the limitations of the infant attachment system
Translational research = the use of lessons from basic research to
develop and test applications to health care, psychotherapy, or other
forms of treatment and intervention
o Represents a dynamic bridge from basic to applied research
o EX basic research on the biochemistry of cell membranes
might be translated into a new drug for schizophrenia
o EX basic research on how mindfulness changes people’s
patterns of attention might be translated into a study skills
intervention
4) Go further: test why, when, or for whom an effect works
Each study leads to ask a new question
5) Make their work public
Submit their results to journals for review and respond to the
opinions of other scientists
Sharing findings of psychological research with the popular media,
who may or may not get the story right
Journal = come out every month and contain articles written by
various qualified contributors
o Articles in a scientific journal à peer-reviewed
= the journal editor sends the submission to three or
four experts on the subject
, Peer reviewers à kept anonymous
SO they can give an honest assessment of the
research
From Journal to Journalism
- Journalism = includes the kinds of news and commentary that most
of us read or hear on television, in magazines and newspapers, and
on Internet sites
o Usually written by journalists or laypeople, not scientists
o Meant to reach the general public à easy to access, and
understanding does not require specialized education
o How does the media find out about the latest scientific
findings?
Journalist turns research into a news story by
summarizing it for a popular audience, giving it an
interesting headline, and writing about it using
nontechnical terms
- Benefits and risks of journalism coverage
o Benefit: psychologists can benefit when journalists publicize
their research
1. Is the Story Important?
When journalists report on a study, have they
chosen research that has been conducted
rigorously, that tests an important question, and
that has been peer-reviewed? Or have they chosen
a study simply because it’s cute or eye-catching?
EX “You need to stop hugging your dog, study
finds”
o NOT peer-reviewed
o AND author left out important details
2. Is the Story Accurate?
Even when journalists report on reliable, important
research, they don’t always get the story right
o BECAUSE no scientific training, motivation,
or time before deadline to understand the
original science very well
o OR dumbs down details of a study to make it
more accessible to a general audience
o AND sometimes a journalist wraps up the
details of a study with a more dramatic
headline than the research can support
“Mozart effect” = example of how journalists might misrepresent science
when they write for a popular audience
2: SOURCES OF INFORMATION: WHY RESEARCH IS
BEST AND HOW TO FIND IT
Three sources of evidence for people’s beliefs
- Experience
