Edexcel A-Level Religious Studies [9RS0]
Paper 1: Philosophy of Religion
1 Philosophical Questions and Issues
1 Philosophical Questions and Issues
1.1 Design Argument
a) Inductive reasoning, a posteriori types of arguments, interpretation of experience.
b) Types of order and regularity, role of analogy, cumulative effect of evidence, anthropic principle, regularities of co-presence and regularities of succession.
c) Strengths/weaknesses: probability rather than proof, alternative interpretations, including evolution and deism. Challenges to the argument.
d) Philosophical Language And Thought Through Significant concepts and the works of key thinkers, illustrated in issues in the philosophy of religion.
With reference to the ideas of W Paley and D Hume.
1.2 Cosmological Argument
a) Inductive reasoning, a posteriori types of arguments.
b) Principle of sufficient reason, explanation, interpretation of experience, movement, cause and effect, contingency, infinite regress, first cause, necessary existence, Kalam version.
c) Strengths/weaknesses: probability rather than proof, brute fact, debates about infinite regress, necessary existence and God as a necessary being. Challenges to the argument.
d) Philosophical Language And Thought Through Significant concepts and the works of key thinkers, illustrated in issues in the philosophy of religion.
With reference to the ideas of Aquinas and D Hume, I Kant.
1.3 Ontological Argument
a) A priori compared to a posteriori types of arguments, deductive reasoning, not evidence based but understanding of concept ‘God’ as an analytic proposition.
b) Definitions of ‘God’, necessary existence, aseity.
c) Strengths/weaknesses: concept of proof compared to probability, debates about ‘existence’ and predicates. Challenges to the argument.
d) Philosophical Language And Thought Through Significant concepts and the works of key thinkers, illustrated in issues in the philosophy of religion.
With reference to the ideas of Anselm and B Russell.
,1.1 Design Argument
The teleological argument is based on experiences, such as human anatomy, weather, etc., it argues that since the world is so complex it must have an intellectual designer
behind it. Its key features include inductive reasoning, a posteriori type argument. (based of experience, empiricism, and experience)
b) Aquinas: Argument from Design
Key Scholar: St. Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274), a Dominican priest, theologian, and philosopher in the 13th century CE.
Summa Theologica was his famous work. Inside the book, there are 5 ways which lead someone to God through the regression of thought.
1. The Unmoved Mover Argument
2. The First Cause Argument
3. The Cosmological Argument (also known as Argument from Contingency)
4. The argument from Degree
5. The argument from Design
From the 5th way of Aquinas, the teleological argument can be seen as an inductive argument and a posteriori (based on experiences). The argument is laid as below:
P1 The Universe has order, purpose and regularity; Analogy:
P2 the complexity of the universe shows evidence of design; Arrow and Archer - an arrow would have no
purpose without an archer’s guidance. Similarly,
P3 such design implies a designer; God guides natural bodies to where they are
meant to go.
C Therefore, this designer must be God.
The Role of Analogy
Philosophers and scientists often use analogies to illustrate and explain ideas and to purpose theories.
, b) William Paley: Teleological Argument
Key Scholar: William Paley (1743-1805), a British theologian, philosopher, writer, teacher who is famous for analogy of the watch for the Teleological argument.
His argument has two parts, design qua purpose and design qua regularity. They both argue from posteriori to prove God’s existence from the design of our universe.
Design qua Purpose
This argument argues from the perspective that the world is too complex, orderly, to not have a designer.
Analogy:
Watch - If you stumble upon a rock on a heath, you wouldn’t question its existence; whereas if you stumble upon a watch on a heath, you would not assume it had always
been there. The presence of the watch must have some explanation, as the watch’s purpose (to tell time) and design (parts have been made in a specific manner and
material) is simply too complex and orderly to have been there by chance.
The watch is like the universe – it is too complex to have just happened by chance. It is impossible therefore to suppose that the universe had come about without the
agency of a 'universe maker' – God.
Example:
The Human Eye - it is very complex and clear that it is designed to give us the purpose to see.
Design qua Regularity
This argument argues from the regularity of the phenomenons in the Universe.
Analogy:
Watch - a watch works by having regular mechanical movements. The watchmaker must be responsible for this regularity design. This watch’s regularity can be compared
to the universes’ regularity, and thus can be inferred to the existence of a designer of the universes’ regularity, and that being God.
Example:
Gravity/Newton Laws - Gravity on the Earth is always constant; and all things in the world obey natural laws such as the Newton Laws of Motion.
Paper 1: Philosophy of Religion
1 Philosophical Questions and Issues
1 Philosophical Questions and Issues
1.1 Design Argument
a) Inductive reasoning, a posteriori types of arguments, interpretation of experience.
b) Types of order and regularity, role of analogy, cumulative effect of evidence, anthropic principle, regularities of co-presence and regularities of succession.
c) Strengths/weaknesses: probability rather than proof, alternative interpretations, including evolution and deism. Challenges to the argument.
d) Philosophical Language And Thought Through Significant concepts and the works of key thinkers, illustrated in issues in the philosophy of religion.
With reference to the ideas of W Paley and D Hume.
1.2 Cosmological Argument
a) Inductive reasoning, a posteriori types of arguments.
b) Principle of sufficient reason, explanation, interpretation of experience, movement, cause and effect, contingency, infinite regress, first cause, necessary existence, Kalam version.
c) Strengths/weaknesses: probability rather than proof, brute fact, debates about infinite regress, necessary existence and God as a necessary being. Challenges to the argument.
d) Philosophical Language And Thought Through Significant concepts and the works of key thinkers, illustrated in issues in the philosophy of religion.
With reference to the ideas of Aquinas and D Hume, I Kant.
1.3 Ontological Argument
a) A priori compared to a posteriori types of arguments, deductive reasoning, not evidence based but understanding of concept ‘God’ as an analytic proposition.
b) Definitions of ‘God’, necessary existence, aseity.
c) Strengths/weaknesses: concept of proof compared to probability, debates about ‘existence’ and predicates. Challenges to the argument.
d) Philosophical Language And Thought Through Significant concepts and the works of key thinkers, illustrated in issues in the philosophy of religion.
With reference to the ideas of Anselm and B Russell.
,1.1 Design Argument
The teleological argument is based on experiences, such as human anatomy, weather, etc., it argues that since the world is so complex it must have an intellectual designer
behind it. Its key features include inductive reasoning, a posteriori type argument. (based of experience, empiricism, and experience)
b) Aquinas: Argument from Design
Key Scholar: St. Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274), a Dominican priest, theologian, and philosopher in the 13th century CE.
Summa Theologica was his famous work. Inside the book, there are 5 ways which lead someone to God through the regression of thought.
1. The Unmoved Mover Argument
2. The First Cause Argument
3. The Cosmological Argument (also known as Argument from Contingency)
4. The argument from Degree
5. The argument from Design
From the 5th way of Aquinas, the teleological argument can be seen as an inductive argument and a posteriori (based on experiences). The argument is laid as below:
P1 The Universe has order, purpose and regularity; Analogy:
P2 the complexity of the universe shows evidence of design; Arrow and Archer - an arrow would have no
purpose without an archer’s guidance. Similarly,
P3 such design implies a designer; God guides natural bodies to where they are
meant to go.
C Therefore, this designer must be God.
The Role of Analogy
Philosophers and scientists often use analogies to illustrate and explain ideas and to purpose theories.
, b) William Paley: Teleological Argument
Key Scholar: William Paley (1743-1805), a British theologian, philosopher, writer, teacher who is famous for analogy of the watch for the Teleological argument.
His argument has two parts, design qua purpose and design qua regularity. They both argue from posteriori to prove God’s existence from the design of our universe.
Design qua Purpose
This argument argues from the perspective that the world is too complex, orderly, to not have a designer.
Analogy:
Watch - If you stumble upon a rock on a heath, you wouldn’t question its existence; whereas if you stumble upon a watch on a heath, you would not assume it had always
been there. The presence of the watch must have some explanation, as the watch’s purpose (to tell time) and design (parts have been made in a specific manner and
material) is simply too complex and orderly to have been there by chance.
The watch is like the universe – it is too complex to have just happened by chance. It is impossible therefore to suppose that the universe had come about without the
agency of a 'universe maker' – God.
Example:
The Human Eye - it is very complex and clear that it is designed to give us the purpose to see.
Design qua Regularity
This argument argues from the regularity of the phenomenons in the Universe.
Analogy:
Watch - a watch works by having regular mechanical movements. The watchmaker must be responsible for this regularity design. This watch’s regularity can be compared
to the universes’ regularity, and thus can be inferred to the existence of a designer of the universes’ regularity, and that being God.
Example:
Gravity/Newton Laws - Gravity on the Earth is always constant; and all things in the world obey natural laws such as the Newton Laws of Motion.
