Human Physiology Exam #1 2023 with verified questions and answers

Physiology is the study of ... the normal functioning of a living organism and it's component parts. Greek for "relationship to nature" and studies the functions homeostasis balance/euilibrium of an internal enviornment even when the external environment is out of balance Pathology occurs when normal function is disrupted and a disease state or condidtion forces the internal environment out of balance basic cell composition H2O, electrolytes, protein, lipids, and carbohydrates subatomic particles electrons, protons, neutrons Atom combination of subatomic particles molecules a binding together of multiple atoms Isotope the number of protons is consistent, but the number of neutrons may vary Elements The simplest substances; they cannot be decomposed or resolved by chemical change into simpler substances. they are the basic substances out of which all matter is composed Major Elements of the human body (99.9%) : oxygen, hydrogen, calcium, potassium, chlorine, magnesium, carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur and sodium Trace elements (.1%): Cobalt, fluorine, Iron, zinc, copper, iodine, manganese Ion When an atom gains or loses one or more electrons and it acquires an electrical charge. If it gains an electron (a negative charge) it is called an anion. If it loses and electron ( a positive charge) it is called a cation Molecule when two or more atoms are combined of the same kind Compound when two or more atoms are combined of the a different kind Role of electrons instrumental in bond formation Ionic bonds formed between oppositely charged particles (NaCl) if separated in solution the result can be an Electrolyte (fluid regulators), salt Covalent bonds molecules in which electrons are shared instead instead of gained or lost Hydrogen bonds weak bonds formed between water molecules and intramolecular bonds-bonds that hold different parts of the same molecule together into a three-dimensional shape Polar molecules molecules that develop regions of partial positive and negative charge (water) Nonpolar molecules have elctrons distributed so evenly that there are no regions of partial positive or negative charge Water (H2O) universal solvent, can dissolve many differnt substances in large amounts Hydro water hydrophilic water loving hydrophobic water hating Mixture consists of two or more compounds combined but are not chemically bound solution homogeneous (parts of the same kind) mixture where the molecules are evenly distributed and will not separated upon standing solvent the dissolving substance Solute the substance which is being dissolved (sugar glucose, small protein molecules, carbon dioxide and oxygen) suspension heterogenous (parts of different kind) mixture where the particles will separate out upon standing Calloid heterogenous mixture where the particles remain suspended, but do not separate upon standing Acid can donate a hydrogen ion into solution Base can accept hydrogens ions from a solution Salt is a balanced combination of an acid with a salt (KCl) PH scale Monitors the acidity and alkalinity of a solution based on how many inons have been released into the solution. The higher the H concentration the more acid the solution. the higher the OH concentration, the more basic the solution Blood is 7.35-7.45 Buffers Resist the Ph change and help prevent such changes (bicarbonates) Biomolecules Organic molecules associated with living organisms, Contain C, H, and O, along with other key elements such as P and N Carbohydrates composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, CHO abbreviation which when combined in various combinations are referred to as Saccharides. These are the most abundant biomolecules simple carbohydrates small molecules of sugar monosaccharides composed of a single sugar glucose circulates in the blood, storable from in the liver ( glycogen aka. Dextrose) Fructose from fruits or honey, ( high fructose corn syrup- artificially altered glucose in cornstarch to fructose which increases the sugar concentration making in a cheap sweetner, but concentrating the sugar being ingested) Galactose mainly comes from the digestion of milk sugar (lactose) Disaccharides composed of two sugars Sucrose Glucose + Fructose (table sugar, brown, powdered, cane or beet, molasses) Lactose Glucose + Galactose ( milk sugar), aids in the absorption of calcium and phosphorus, encourages the growth the useful intestinal bacteria Maltose Glucose + Glucose, often used as a synthetic sweetner complex carbohydrates large molecules of sugar ( polysaccharides) combined with starch which together provide energy with dietary fiber Glycogen found in animal muscle tissue, crucial in body metabolism and energy balance, constantly being broken down into glucose Dietary Fiber polysaccharides. Two types insoluble & and soluble Insoluble Dietary fiber doesn't dissolve in water - cellulose, most hemicelluloses ( both of which make up plant cell walls, lignin (forms the woody part of certain plants and binds cellulose fibers) Soluble Dietary Fiber Dissolve or absorb water - gums (secretions of plants and seeds), most pectins, algae and seaweeds - provide fermentation material on which the colon bacteria can work and slows the emptying of the food mass from the stomach ( fuller longer) Lipids Organic substances of a fatty nature including: fats, oils, waxes, and other fat - related compounds such as cholesterol. there are structurally the most diverse biomolecules Lipids are hydrophobic and therefore... prevent fluid shifts from one compartment to another which is the basis of disease Lipids have a better... energy conversion than proteins and carbohydrates Lipids glycolytic conversion is ... faster ( more energy quicker) Glycerides formed from glycerol with one, two, or three fatty acids attached Fatty acids the building blocks of triglycerides ( glycerol + 3 fatty acids) Essential Fatty Acids those that are necessary in the diet. In order to qualify, the following needs to be true: Its absence will create a specific deficiency disease or the body cannot manufacture it in sufficient amounts and must obtain it from the diet Saturated Fatty Acids ( saturated fats) Capable of holding (like a sponge) all the hydrogen molecules - from meats, dairy, eggs, and tropical oils such as: cococnut oil palm and palm kernel oil, generally solid at room temperature Unsaturated Fatty Acids Essential fatty acids, capable of holding some hydrogen ions, liquid at room temperature Monounsaturated Fatty Acids have room to hold one more hydrogen molecule - from olives, olive oils, peanuts, peanut oil, canola oil, almonds, pecans and avocados LDL bad cholesterol HDL Good cholesterol Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids Have room to hold multiple hydrogen molecules - from vegetable oils, safflower, corn, cottonseed, soybean and fish oils Omega 3 Lowers bad cholesterol while keeping good cholesterol stable and reduces tissue inflammation, best sources: fish like salmon, sardines, tuna, as well as flax seeds and flaxseed oil and walnuts Omega 6 Lowers cholesterol when eaten in place of saturated fat, but it lowers both bad and good cholesterol as well as increases inflammation, best sources: safflower, sunflower, and corn oils, and mayonnaise and made with these oils Foods containing both Omega 3 & 6 include: walnuts, tofu, wheat germ, and soybean oil Sterols a subgroup of steroids ( sex hermones) that are made by plants and animals and are vital in the stabilization of the cell membrane, cholesterol specifically acts in this capacity ~ stabilizes the phospholipid bilayer Amino acids Building blocks of proteins ( like beads on a necklace), compounds containing nitrogen. Peptides small chains of amino acids polypeptides longer chains of amino acids proteins long chains of amino acids (primary structure) Secondary structure proteins begins to take on a shape ( pleating, beta strand/ coiling, alpha helix) that is stabilized by hydrogen bonding Tertiary structure 3D shape - folds in on itself creating one of two types of proteins: Fibrous & Globular Fibrous Proteins found as pleated sheets or in long chains of helices that are insoluble in water and form structural components of cells and tissues Globular proteins have amino acids chains that fold back on themselves to create a complex tertiary structure containing pockets, channels, or protruding knobs. These are soluble in water and act as carriers for water-insoluble lipids in the blood, binding ot the lipids making them soluble. They also serve as enzymes (chemical catalyst) Quaternary structure several proteins chains associating with one another ( hemoglobin) Indispensable/Essential amino acids are necessary in the diet and cannot be left out because the body cannot manufacture them in sufficient quantities or at all Conjugated proteins are protein molecules combined with another kind of biomolecule, both are important components of cell membranes Lipoproteins transport lipids (fats) in the blood stream, a water-soluble carrier molecule consisting of wrapping a fat droplet in a thin protein coat that is hydrophilic Low-density lipoproteins LDL - carry fat and cholecterol to cells High-density lipoproteins HDL - carry free cholesterol from the body tissues to the liver for breakdown and excretion Glycoproteins protein combines with a carbohydrate Glycolipids carbohydrates covalently bonded to lipids Nucleotides and nucleic acids function in the storage and transmission of genetic information and energy Nucleotide composed of three molecular parts. One or more phosphate group, a 5-carbon sugar (ribose or deoxyribose), a carbon-nitrogen ring structure called a nitrogenous base Purine/double ring: adenine and guanine pyrimidine/single ring: cytosine, thymine, and uracil DNA and RNA are nucleic acids - which function to store genetic information within the cell and transmit it to future generations of cells DNA: adenine, guanine, cytosine, and thymine ( double helix, A-T, G-C) RNA : Adenine, Guanine, Cytosine, and Uracil (single strand) When these nitrogenous bases are combined... In groups of three ( triplet in DNA, codon in RNA) they form the foundation of the genetic code from which 20 amino acids can be produced Nucleus control center of the cell containing the nucleolus which in turn contains the cells genetic material (DNA) Deoxyribonucleic acid DNA - directs the cell's activities. Consists of : A (adenine), G (Guanine), C (Cytosine), T (thymine). It does not leave and communicates through the pores Ribonucleic Acid RNA- located almost entirely in the cytoplasm. Field coordinator of the cell, reading off the blue prints sent out by the nucleus in the form of DNA to produce proteins needed by the cell. Has the same things that DNA has but, has U (uracil) instead of T (thymine) Nuclear Envelope Surrounding membrane, nuclear pores , A double membrane that surrounds the nucleus in the cell and has pores Nuclear pores fused openings in the membrane which allows selected substances into and out of the area nucleoli the sites contained within the nucleus where ribosomes are assembled consisting largely of RNA and protein Chromatin Loose strands of DNA wrapped around protein clusters called histones that during cell division shorten and tighten until they form rod-like chromosomes Centrioles Paired structural coordinator that forms the mitotic spindle during cell division Plasma membrane composed of a phospholipids bilayer, hydrophilic phosphate heads and a pydrophobic lipid tail, cholecterol molecules that help stablilize the cell membrane Receptor proteins receive and transmit messages into the cells Integral proteins form specialized doorways for specific molecules cellular adhesion molecules CAMs (desmosomes or gap junctions) that allow the cells to stick to each other and allow small molecules to move between the cytoplasm of adjacent cells Mitrochondria powerhouse of the cell, converts nutrients into ATP Ribosomes Manufacture proteins (attached to ER as well) Endoplasmic reticulum Rough (with ribosomes) & Smooth (without ribosomes) - network within the cytoplasm Rough ER membrane factory producing both integral proteins and the phospholipids molecules Smooth ER Break down (metabolizes) fats and stores Ca ions. Also detoxifies lipid-soluble drugs thus the more drugsingested, the more efficient the detoxifying resulting n gained resistance to many drugs with increased usage (antibiotics-super bug) Golgi apparatus packaging plant of the cell sorting and sending proteins to their specific destinations Lysosome contains digestive enzymes that function as the cell's demolition crew to unwanted substances Peroxisomes disarm free radicals (byproducts of cellular metabolism) by turning them into hydrogen peroxide (water and oxygen) Centrioles paired barrel shaped structures which particitpate in cell division by organizing the mitotic spindle located near the nucleus Inclusions Non-permanent strucutres, not present in all cells that provide storage for: pigments, crystals and food in the form or either glycogen or lipid Surface organelles Cillia and flagellum are used for mobility and villa increase surface area Cytoplasm Cytosol - semi-gelatinous fluid containing inclusions, organelles, microtubules (cytoskeleton) Liposomes Closed Lipid bilayer spheres that encapsulate ingredients, target their delivery to specific tissues of the skin, and control their release Ligand any molecule that binds to another molecule substrates ligands that bind to enzymes and membrane transporters specificity the ability of a protein to bind to a certain ligand or a group of related ligands Affinity the degree to which a protein is attracted to a ligand Protein bonding to a ligrand is.. revesible because they can go into a state of rquilibrium equilibrium the rate of binding is exactly equal to the rate of unbinding Dissociation constant is the same as ... the equilibrrium constant Kd = ([P]*[L])/[PL] where PL - P + L agonist a ligand that mimics another's actions Isoforms closely related proteins whose functions is similar but, whose affinity for ligands differs activation some proteins need to be activated by an enzyme before they can function in the cell. enzyme will chop off one or more portions of the protein cofactor many be needed to activated an enzyme, can be an ion or small organic functional group modulator A factor that influences either protein binding or protein activity. Two types: chemical modulators and antagonists Chemical modulators Are molecules that bind covalently or noncovalently to proteins and alter their binding ability or their activity Antagoinist Are chemical modulators that bind to a protein and decrease its activity competitive inhibitors are reversible antagoinist that compete with the customary ligand for the binding site Allosteric modulators Bind reversibly to a protein at a regulatory site away from the binding site and by doing so change the shape of the binding site Covalent modulators Atoms or functional groups that bind convalently to proteins and alter the proteins' properties