Human Anatomy and Physiology 2023 with complete solution

Anatomy the study of the structure of body parts and their relationships to one another Physiology the study of the functions of the body, or how the body parts work and carry out their life sustaining activities Principle of Complementary Structure determines function Maintaining boundaries Cell membrane and integumentary system Movement Activities promoted by the muscular system Responsiveness (irritability) Sense changes and respond to them Digestion Breakdown of ingested food into simple molecules for absorption Metabolism All chemical reactions within body cells Catabolism Breakdown into simpler substances Anabolism Synthesis of more complex substances from simpler ones Excretion Removing waste Reproduction Creating new daughter cells or offspring Growth Increase in size or cell number Organization of life chemicals (atoms, molecules), cells, tissues, organs, organ systems, organisms Organ systems integumentary, skeletal, muscular, nervous, endocrine, cardiovascular, lymphatic/immunity, respiratory, digestive, urinary, reproductive Anatomical position body erect, arms at sides, legs together, palms face up. This allows proper orientation of the parts of the body and gives us a directional reference point, regardless of the position of the body Frontal (coronal) plane divides into front and back halves (like a CT scan) Sagittal plane divides into left and right halves (midsagittal divides into equal left and right halves Transverse (axial) plane divides into top and bottom halves Direction terms allows us to explain where one body structure is in relation to another Superior Above Inferior Below Medial Toward the midline Lateral Away from the midline (sides or edges) Anterior In front of Proximal Closer to the main part of the body (used with appendages) Posterior Behind Distal Farther away from the main part of the body (appendages) Superficial (external) Towards surface Deep (internal) Away from the surface Spinal cavity Contains spine​ Dorsal cavity Made of cranial and spinal cavities Cranial cavity Contains brain Ventral cavity Made of thoracic, abdominal and pelvic cavities Thoracic cavity Contains lungs and heart, bounded posteriorly by diaphragm Abdominal cavity Contains digestive organs and spleen Pelvic cavity Contains urinary bladder, reproductive organs, and some digestive organs Serous membrane like a fist in a balloon. A double layered membrane with fluid in the cavity between layers. Allows organs to move without friction (heart and lungs) Partial pleura Lines the walls of the thoracic cavity Visceral pleura covers lungs, pleural cavity is found between parietal and visceral pleura Parietal pericardium Sac around heart Visceral pericardium also called epicardium, covers heart with pericardial cavity in between Parietal peritoneum Lined walls of abdominal cavity Visceral peritoneum Covers abdominal organs Body quadrants Negative feedback Blood glucose levels Positive feedback Contractions in labor Matter made of atoms, all things made of matter. Forms or states of matter: solid, liquid, gas Atoms smallest unit of an element, composed of a nucleus (protons + , neutrons 0), and an electron cloud (electrons - ) Ionic bonding atoms donate electrons to create ions that are then attracted to one another to form molecules Cations Ions with a positive charge Anions Ions with a negative charge Electrolytes All ions are electrolytes, substances that conduct an electrical current in solution. Electrolytes are necessary for proper metabolic functions and make bones and teeth hard Covalent bonding atoms share electron between atoms to form molecules Polar covalent bonding unequal sharing of electrons that creates positively and negatively charged ends to a molecule. Water is a common polar compound Nonpolar covalent bonding evenly shared electrons; CO2, hydrocarbons in cell membrane Hydrogen covalent bonding forms between polar molecules. Attraction between partially positive hydrogen atoms and the partially negative end of another polar covalent molecule; "rungs" of DNA molecule Water Has properties due to its covalent bond High specific heat capacity Amount of energy required to increase temperature of 1 gram of a substance by 1 degree Celsius. Water's value is extremely high due to energy needed to break hydrogen bonds. Contributes to keeping body temperature constant and allows subtle changes in temperature High heat of vaporization Heat required for release of molecules from a liquid phase into a gaseous phase for 1 gram of a substance. Water's value very high due to hydrogen bonding. Sweating cools body, excess heat dissipated as water evaporates Polar solvent properties acts as a transport medium for substances in the body (wastes, nutrients, gases), especially those that are also polar Reactivity involved in chemical reactions; ex. Water added in hydrolysis for digestion cushioning protects organs (brain, fetus) from physical trauma Acids release H+ in water (0-6.9 pH is acidic) Bases Release OH- in water (7.1-14 pH is basic) Buffers resist large and abrupt swings of pH in the body. Bicarbonate, phosphate, proteins are the main three Mixture are formed from combining two or more substances. Two defining features: • Substances mixed are not chemically changed • Substances can be separated by physical means, e.g., evaporation or filtering Suspension (water mixture) material larger in size than 1 mm mixed with water, e.g., blood cells within plasma or sand in water, does not remain mixed unless in motion, appears cloudy or opaque; scatters light Colloid (water mixture) smaller particles than a suspension, but larger than those in a solution, e.g., fluid in cell cytosol and fluid in blood plasma, remains mixed when not in motion, scatters light Solution (water mixture) homogeneous mixture of material smaller than 1 nanometer, dissolves in water, does not scatter light; does not settle if solution not in motion, e.g., sugar water, salt water, blood plasma Special category of suspension: emulsion Water and a nonpolar liquid substance, e.g., oil and vinegar salad dressing or breast milk, does not mix unless shaken Biological macromolecules large organic molecules synthesized by the body, always contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen and some may also havenitrogen, phosphorus, or sulfur. Contain functional groups: Most are polar and able to hydrogen bond, some act like acids (e.g., carboxyl group), others act like bases (e.g., amine group) Organic compounds made of carbon, diverse compounds because: ​1. Carbon can bond to up to 4 different things at once ​2. Carbon can bond in long chains, branching chains, or rings ​3. Carbon can bond to functional groups (OH, SH, phenol, etc) ​4. Carbon can bond with double and triple bonds. Dehydration synthesis removal of a molecule of water from two molecules will allow them to covalently bond with one another. Ex. formation of organic molecules (polymers) from monomers Hydrolysis the addition of water between two molecules breaks them apart. Ex. the splitting of polymers into monomers Carbohydrates ​A. Monosaccharides: glucose, ribose in DNA and RNA ​B. Disaccharides: maltose and sucrose ​C. Polysaccharides: starch (glycogen) and cellulose D. Functions: short term energy storage, structural molecules, used for immediate energy Lipids monomers are glycerol and fatty acids (saturated and unsaturated) A. Neutral fats: triglycerides in adipose cells ​B. Phospholipids: phosphate, glycerol, and two fatty acids in cell membrane C. Steroids: cholesterol and sex hormones D. Functions: longterm energy storage in adipose tissue, forms sex hormones, found in cell membrane. Nucleic acids polymers are DNA and RNA ​ A. Nucleotides: monomers of a sugar, phosphate, and nitrogenous base of either adenine, guanine, cytosine, or thymine B. Functions: hereditary information, blueprint for proteins C. ATP: energy molecule in shape of adenine nucleotide with 3 phosphate groups. Made by cell during glycolysis and aerobic respiration from glucose. Necessary for most cellular and system functions. Proteins A. Amino acids: monomers of proteins, come in 20 different types with a common basic structure: ​ ​B. Functions: enzymes, receptors, buffers, structure, transport, defense ​C. Four levels of protein structure ​i. Primary: polypeptide chain of amino acids ​ii. Secondary: alpha helix or beta pleated sheet ​iii. Tertiary: "scribble" shape due to various bonds between R groups iv. Quaternary: two or more proteins, fibrous or globular D. Denaturation: breakage of bonds in protein, results in loss of function. High temperature and low pH (acidity) often denature proteins. E. Enzyme Activity: shape of protein determines its activity. An enzyme's role is to lower the energy required for a reaction to occur and thereby occur more quickly and more likely. Changes in chemical structure decomposition reaction, synthesis reaction, exchange reaction Decomposition reaction Initial large molecule broken down into smaller structures ​AB → A + B Synthesis reaction Two or more structures combined to form a larger structure A + B → AB Exchange reaction Groups exchanged between two chemical structures Has both decomposition and synthesis components Most prevalent in human body ​ AB + C → A + BC Cell theory ​1. The cell is the basic unit of structure and function in living things. ​2. Activity of the organism depends on activity of cells. ​3. Cells come from preexisting cells. Cytosol function Holds organelles and contains dissolved nutrients Mitochondria function Site of aerobic respiration for production of ATP Ribosomes function Site of protein synthesis with mRNA and tRNA Rough endoplasmic reticulum function Attachment site for ribosomes and transport of proteins to golgi Smooth endoplasmic reticulum function detoxification of cells, lipid synthesis, and storage of calcium Golgi apparatus function Packages and secretes proteins from cell Lysosomes and peroxisomes function Contain digestive enzymes to break up things brought into the cell Cytoskeleton function Made of microtubules, intermediate, and micro filaments to support cell Centrioles function Used by animal cells to pull chromosomes apart during mitosis/meiosis Cilia and flagella function Cell locomotion Nuclear envelope and pores function Contains chromatin in nucleus and allows materials to enter and leave the nucleus Nucleoli function Site of ribosomes assembly in nucleus Chromatin function Genetic information made of DNA Cell membrane fluid mosaic model of phospholipids, cholesterol (for stability), proteins, glycoproteins, and glycolipids. Also called phospholipid bilayer Phospholipids each phospholipid has a polar "head" that is charged and is hydrophilic, and an uncharged, nonpolar "tail" made of two fatty acid chains and is hydrophobic. The polar heads are attracted to the water in the extracellular and intracellular fluid and lie on both the inner and outer surfaces of the membrane. The nonpolar tails, being hydrophobic, avoid water and line up in the center of the membrane. Both layers of the bilayer orient their phospholipids so that the heads are always on the edges and the tail are always in the middle Protein function found either all the way through the membrane or on only one side ​A. Integral: found all the way through the membrane; act as transporters, enzymes, receptors, for intercellular joining, cell-cell recognition, attachment to cytoskeleton and extracellular matrix (ECM). B. Peripheral (Glycocalyx): found on one side of membrane in gooey, carbohydrate-rich area at cell surface to provide highly specific biological markers for recognition. Tight membrane junction proteins fuse together; ex. epithelial cells of intestines Desmosomes membrane junction act like rivets to hold skin, heart, muscle, neck of uterus together Gap membrane junction allow chemicals to pass between adjacent cells; heart and smooth muscle synchronize contractions Interstitial fluid membrane function "soup" of nutrients that surrounds cells. It contains thousands of ingredients, such as nutrients, hormones, regulatory substances, waste products, etc. necessary for the cell. Each cell extracts exactly what it needs from this mix. Membrane transport Selectively permeable membrane around cell. Ability to select is lost with damage to cell, as in burns. passive processes No energy (ATP) is required Diffusion (passive) movement along concentration gradient (high to low) Osmosis (passive) diffusion of solvent from dilute solution to concentrated solution (along the concentration gradient of water) Isotonic no net osmosis. Concentrations inside and outside of cell are equal Hypertonic net water movement out of cell. Cells will shrivel or crenate Hypotonic net water movement into cell. Cells swell and lyse. Filtration occurs along a pressure gradient (high pressure to low pressure). Not a selective process, common in kidney Active transport Requires energy (ATP) for movement against a concentration gradient, from low to high sodium-potassium pump used to establish membrane potential. Energy (ATP) is used against a concentration gradient to put more sodium outside of the cell and more potassium inside (3:2 ratio) Secondary active transport also called cotransport, it involves the movement of a substance (Na+) down its concentration gradient to provide the energy to move a different substance (glucose, H+) up its concentration gradient. With a symporter, two substances are moved in the same direction, but with an antiporter, two substances are moved in opposite directions. Exocytosis vacuoles and vesicles fuse with cell membrane, material is released Endocytosis large material that is needed inside of the cell is engulfed Phagocytosis engulf with pseudopodia Receptor-mediated Engulf specific substances Histology The study of tissues Tissue a group of similar cells with a particular function Epithelial tissue a sheet of cells that covers a body surface or lines a body cavity and makes up the glands of the body Polarity all epithelia have an apical or upper free surface, which is exposed to the body exterior or the cavity of an internal organ, and a lower attached basal surface Connective tissue support just underneath the basal surface of all epithelia lies a basement membrane on which the cells rest. It acts a filter, a scaffold for repair, and reinforcement to resist stretching and tearing and defines the epithelial boundary. Cell connections epithelial cells fit closely and tightly together to form continuous sheets. The cells are held together with tight junctions and desmosomes that bind adjacent cells together at many points Avascular but innervated epithelium contains no blood vessels, but is supplied with many nerve endings. Epithelial cells are nourished by substances diffusing from blood vessels in the underlying connective tissue of the basement membran Regenerated epithelium is highly regenerative and mitotic. Homeostatic imbalance cancerous epithelial cells will penetrate the basement membrane to tissues underneath (metastasis) Functions of epithelial tissue covers body surfaces or lines body cavities or tracts, vessels, and comprises glandular tissue. Functions include: filtration, absorption, protection, exchange, and secretion simple vs stratified epithelial tissue simple is a single layer of cells for absorption, exchange and filtration. Stratified is made of multiple layers of cells for protection, often in areas of abrasion (skin, mouth) Shape of epithelial tissue squamous: flattened or scalelike; cuboidal: boxlike; columnar: tall and column-shaped simple squamous epithelium a. Structure: cells are flattened, cytoplasm is sparse. b. Function: Carries out filtration or exchange of materials by diffusion. c. Location: Walls of alveoli of lungs, endothelium (inner lining) of lymph, blood vessels, and heart. Capillaries are exclusively endothelium. Forms mesothelium in serous membranes (which line body cavities and cover organs). simple cuboidal epithelium a. Structure: single layer of cells as tall as they are wide. b. Function: Carries out secretion and absorption. c. Location: Kidney tubules are lined with simple cuboidal epithelium, also found in glandular epithelium and some small ducts. Simple columnar epithelium a. Structure: tall, closely packed cells. b. Function: absorption and secretion. Goblet cells secrete a protective, lubricating mucus. c. Location: Lines digestive tract from stomach to rectum. Ciliated form found in uterine tubes. Dense microvilli on apical surface present to increase surface area for absorption. Pseudostratified (ciliated) columnar epithelium a. Structure: All cells rest on the basement membrane but only the tallest cells reach the free surface of epithelium. b. Function: Secretion and absorption, cilia propel mucus, trapping dust and moving itaway from lungs. c. Location: Found in trachea and bronchi of respiratory tract. Stratified squamous epithelium a. Structure: free surface cells are squamous, lower layers are cuboidal. Layers farther away from basement membrane atrophy, flatten, and die. Keratinized in the epidermis; nonkeratinized everywhere else. b. Function: For protection; subject to wear and tear; surface cells are rubbed away and replaced c. Location: Found in epidermis of skin, mouth, esophagus, vagina transitional epithelium a. Structure: Basal cells are cuboidal, apical are rounded when bladder is empty, flattened when filled. b. Function: Allows a greater volume of urine to flow through the urethra and to be stored in the urethra. c. Location: Lines urinary organs. glandular epithelium Exocrine, holocrine, and endocrine: exocrine glandshave ducts to the surface (salivary, mammary, etc.) Holocrine exocrine glands rupture to release cell contents (sebaceous). Endocrine glands do not have ducts but secrete their products into the surrounding interstitial fluid and then into the bloodstream. Connective tissue the most abundant and widely distributed of the primary tissues. Its functions include: 1. Binding and supporting; 2. Protecting; 3. Insulating; 4. Storing reserve fuel; 5. Transporting substances within the body ​a. Common origin: all connective tissues arise from mesenchyme. b. Degrees of vascularity: Cartilage is avascular, dense connective tissue is poorly vascularized, but the rest have a rich blood supply. c. Living cells in a nonliving matrix. Ground substances unstructured material that fills the space between the cells and contains fibers Collagen fibers collagen protein bundled into thick fibers with high tensile strength (stronger than steel!) Elastic fibers rubbery elastin protein bundled to provide stretch and recoil that isn't present in collagen Reticular fibers thin collagen fibers that branch extensively to form a delicate network to support small blood vessels and soft tissues in organs. Fibroblasts give rise to all loose and dense connective tissue proper. Chondroblasts Gives rise to cartilage Osteoblasts Gives rise to bones Hemocytoblasts (hematopoietic stem cells) Gives rise to blood tissues Mesenchyme (embryonic stem cells) precursor to all connective tissues, formed from mesoderm (middle embryonic germ layer) Areolar (loose) Structure: It is a loose arrangement of fibers (collagen, elastic, reticular), the rest is ground substance of hyaluronic acid (which makes the matrix gelatinous) and fibroblasts. Function: Supports, binds, holds body fluids, defends against infection (with lymphocytes, mast cells, and phagocytes within it) and stores nutrients. It is a reservoir of water (interstitial fluid) and salt and edema (swelling) occurs in this tissue. Location: the most widely distributed connective tissue in the body; serves as a universal packing material between other tissues; binds body parts together while allowing them to move freely over one another; wraps small blood vessels and nerves; surrounds glands; forms subcutaneous tissue which cushions and attaches the skin to underlying structures; forms the basement membrane for epithelial tissue. Adipose (loose) Structure: "fat cells". Very little ECM, mature cells are amitotic (do not divide once formed), richly vascularized. Function: Stores lipid in cells to insulate, store energy, and act as a shock absorber, may also help make testosterone, estrogen. Miles of capillaries in every pound of fat. Location: found under skin and over organs.