1.15.15
Chapter 1 – Introduction to Human Development
1. Development – refers to changes over time in a person’s body, thought, and behavior due
to biological and environmental influences
a. Developmental psychologists
i. Focus on common
features ii.
2. Guiding Themes in Human Development
a. Biological and environmental factors
b. Development occurs within social context
c. Best understood by considering domains or categories of human experience
d. Best interpreted when placed in theoretical framework
e. Best studied through use of scientific methods
3. Nature of Human Development
a. Individual biology and environment interact
i. Nature vs. Nurture
b. Development is deeply-embedded in sociocultural context
c. Children are viewed more favorably today than in the past as a result of
changing historical context
i. People vs. Property
d. Collectivist (Eastern) cultures stress interdependence and cooperation.
Individualistic (Western) cultures stress competition and personal achievement.
e. Individualistic cultures emphasize individual achievement and competition.
4. The Domains of Human Development
a. Physical – changes in physical shape, size, sensory capabilities, motor skills
b. Cognitive – acquisition of skills in perceiving, thinking, reasoning, problem
solving, language
c. Personality – acquisition of stable and enduring personality traits
d. Sociocultural – processes of socialization and enculturation
5. Changing Perspectives
a. Children and War
i. Immediate and obvious impact
1. Demoralization, depression, and a chronic sense of fear and uncertainty
2. High rates of PTSD and related symptoms
3. Desensitization
ii. Child soldiers
1. Fifty regions around the world was at war during 1990s
2. More than 2/3 of conflicts involved use of underage soldiers who
sometimes were as young as age 5 and who often had not
reached puberty
6. Theoretical Frameworks for Human Development
a. Theories
i. Broad frameworks of understanding
ii. Organized, coherent
b. Role of Theory
i. No theory is either right or wrong
, ii. It is best to consider what each theory contributes and to use knowledge
to better understand the phenomenon being studied
iii. Theories are based on data
iv. All theories change over time
c. Major types of theories
i. Biological
ii. Psychodynamic
iii. Behavioral
iv. Cognitive
d. Biological Views of Human Development
i. Biologically determined processes and events exert important influences
on development
1. Genetics – studies biological instructions encoded in human genome
2. Developmental neuroscience – focuses on links between brain
function, behavior, and thought
3. Evolution and natural selection – focus on adaptation of a species to
its environment
e. Psychodynamic Approach
i. Role of unconscious mind and interactions of psychic processes emphasized
1. Sigmund Freud – three processes (id, ego, superego) and
five psychosexual stages
2. Erik Erikson – psychosocial theory, emphasizing individual and
social interactions, in which people pass through eight stages
ii. Freud’s Psychosexual Stages
1. Oral (birth to 18 months) – the infant experiences pleasure from
stimulation of the mouth, lips, and oral activities, especially
sucking
a. Left on breast milk too long/too little – grows up biting nails,
sucking on things, chewing straws, etc.
2. Anal (18 months-3 years) – the child’s pleasure focuses on the anus
and the elimination functions
a. Mom is strict potty-trainer – embarrassment from an accident
can lead them to be ‘anal-retentive’ later on in life
3. Phallic (3-6 years) – the child’s pleasure focuses on the
genitals, especially through masturbation
a. Penis envy (girls) vs. Castration anxiety (boys)
b. Oedipus complex (boys to moms) vs. Electra complex (girls
to dads)
4. Latency (6-12 years) – the child represses sexual interests and
instead focuses on developing cognitive and interpersonal skills
5. Genital (12 years) – adolescence triggers the reemergence of
sexual impulses, with gratification dependent on finding a partner
a. Begin looking for dates, sex, significant others > carries
on throughout your whole life
iii. Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages
1. Trust vs. Mistrust – birth to 1 year
a. Mom plays huge part – if you can’t trust mom, you can’t
trust anyone
, 2. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt – 12 to 36 months
3. Initiative vs. Guilt – 3 to 6 years
4. Industry vs. Inferiority – 6 to 12 years
5. Ego identity vs. Ego diffusion – 12 to 18 years
6. Intimacy vs. Isolation – 18 to 40 years
7. Generativity vs. Self-absorption – 40 to 65 years
8. Integrity vs. Despair – 65 and up
f. Behavioral Views
i. Processes that produce observable behavior are highlighted
1. Pavlov
a. Classical Conditioning: biologically-based responses
to environment
2. B.F. Skinner
a. Operant Conditioning: how rewards and punishment
influence our behavior
3. Albert Bandura
a. Social Learning Theory: what we learn from observing others
b. Bobo doll experiment
g. Cognitive Views
i. Processes that underlie development of thinking, reasoning, and
problem- solving are key
1. Jean Piaget – posited processes of assimilation, accommodation,
and schemas, or frameworks of knowledge
2. Lev Vygotsky – emphasized the importance of learning from
other people
h. Integrative Approaches
i. Broader focus on all contexts in which humans develop are involved
1. Lev Vygotsky
a. Proposed cognitive development is “apprenticeships”
b. Argued learning is transmitted through shared meanings
of objects and events
c. Emphasized role of experts or more skilled other in
guided participation
i. The Scientific Approach to Studying Human Development
i. Scientific method – uses specific techniques and ethical guidelines to
study human behavior
ii. Methods include:
1. Descriptive
a. Case study – compilation of detailed information on
individual, family, or community through interview,
observations, and formal testing
i. Baby biography
b. Systematic observation – observational method in which
researchers go into everyday settings and observe and
record behavior while being as unobtrusive as possible
i. Naturalistic observation
ii. Laboratory observation
, c. Questionnaire – paper and pencil method that asks
respondents to answer questions
d. Survey – questionnaire administered to a large group
e. Interview – questionnaire that is administered verbally,
usually in a one on one setting
f. Psychological tests
i. Often involve measurement of intelligence
or personality traits
ii. Ex: IQ tests, Wechsler, etc.
2. Longitudinal Studies
a. Same participants are studied at various points in time to
see how they change with age
b. Pros: accurate information
c. Cons: takes too long, expensive, time-consuming
3. Correlational Research
a. Ex: Red wine and heart attack prevention go together: but at
the time of the research we didn’t know why
4. Experiments
j. Studying Development Across Time
i. Longitudinal design
ii. Cross-sectional design – compares individuals of different ages at one point
in time
1. Confounding
2. Cohort effects
iii. Sequential cohort design – several overlapping asdf
k. Ethics in Developmental Research
i. Organizational ethical guidelines
1. Organizations
a. American Psychological Association (APA)
b. Society for Research in Child Development (SRCD)
2. Recommendations and laws
a. Ethical guidelines are not merely recommendations; they
are backed up by law
1.20.15
Chapter 2 – Heredity and Environment
1. Nature (DNA) vs. Nurture (environment)
2. Molecular Genetics
a. There are about 25,000 genes in the human body.
b. How can such a simple system dictate how life unfolds?
i. Number of base pairs in DNA molecule are very large.
ii. Different species, and even different individuals within the same species,
have different numbers of base pairs in their genome.
1. Ex: Blond marries brunette, has redhead child.
Chapter 1 – Introduction to Human Development
1. Development – refers to changes over time in a person’s body, thought, and behavior due
to biological and environmental influences
a. Developmental psychologists
i. Focus on common
features ii.
2. Guiding Themes in Human Development
a. Biological and environmental factors
b. Development occurs within social context
c. Best understood by considering domains or categories of human experience
d. Best interpreted when placed in theoretical framework
e. Best studied through use of scientific methods
3. Nature of Human Development
a. Individual biology and environment interact
i. Nature vs. Nurture
b. Development is deeply-embedded in sociocultural context
c. Children are viewed more favorably today than in the past as a result of
changing historical context
i. People vs. Property
d. Collectivist (Eastern) cultures stress interdependence and cooperation.
Individualistic (Western) cultures stress competition and personal achievement.
e. Individualistic cultures emphasize individual achievement and competition.
4. The Domains of Human Development
a. Physical – changes in physical shape, size, sensory capabilities, motor skills
b. Cognitive – acquisition of skills in perceiving, thinking, reasoning, problem
solving, language
c. Personality – acquisition of stable and enduring personality traits
d. Sociocultural – processes of socialization and enculturation
5. Changing Perspectives
a. Children and War
i. Immediate and obvious impact
1. Demoralization, depression, and a chronic sense of fear and uncertainty
2. High rates of PTSD and related symptoms
3. Desensitization
ii. Child soldiers
1. Fifty regions around the world was at war during 1990s
2. More than 2/3 of conflicts involved use of underage soldiers who
sometimes were as young as age 5 and who often had not
reached puberty
6. Theoretical Frameworks for Human Development
a. Theories
i. Broad frameworks of understanding
ii. Organized, coherent
b. Role of Theory
i. No theory is either right or wrong
, ii. It is best to consider what each theory contributes and to use knowledge
to better understand the phenomenon being studied
iii. Theories are based on data
iv. All theories change over time
c. Major types of theories
i. Biological
ii. Psychodynamic
iii. Behavioral
iv. Cognitive
d. Biological Views of Human Development
i. Biologically determined processes and events exert important influences
on development
1. Genetics – studies biological instructions encoded in human genome
2. Developmental neuroscience – focuses on links between brain
function, behavior, and thought
3. Evolution and natural selection – focus on adaptation of a species to
its environment
e. Psychodynamic Approach
i. Role of unconscious mind and interactions of psychic processes emphasized
1. Sigmund Freud – three processes (id, ego, superego) and
five psychosexual stages
2. Erik Erikson – psychosocial theory, emphasizing individual and
social interactions, in which people pass through eight stages
ii. Freud’s Psychosexual Stages
1. Oral (birth to 18 months) – the infant experiences pleasure from
stimulation of the mouth, lips, and oral activities, especially
sucking
a. Left on breast milk too long/too little – grows up biting nails,
sucking on things, chewing straws, etc.
2. Anal (18 months-3 years) – the child’s pleasure focuses on the anus
and the elimination functions
a. Mom is strict potty-trainer – embarrassment from an accident
can lead them to be ‘anal-retentive’ later on in life
3. Phallic (3-6 years) – the child’s pleasure focuses on the
genitals, especially through masturbation
a. Penis envy (girls) vs. Castration anxiety (boys)
b. Oedipus complex (boys to moms) vs. Electra complex (girls
to dads)
4. Latency (6-12 years) – the child represses sexual interests and
instead focuses on developing cognitive and interpersonal skills
5. Genital (12 years) – adolescence triggers the reemergence of
sexual impulses, with gratification dependent on finding a partner
a. Begin looking for dates, sex, significant others > carries
on throughout your whole life
iii. Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages
1. Trust vs. Mistrust – birth to 1 year
a. Mom plays huge part – if you can’t trust mom, you can’t
trust anyone
, 2. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt – 12 to 36 months
3. Initiative vs. Guilt – 3 to 6 years
4. Industry vs. Inferiority – 6 to 12 years
5. Ego identity vs. Ego diffusion – 12 to 18 years
6. Intimacy vs. Isolation – 18 to 40 years
7. Generativity vs. Self-absorption – 40 to 65 years
8. Integrity vs. Despair – 65 and up
f. Behavioral Views
i. Processes that produce observable behavior are highlighted
1. Pavlov
a. Classical Conditioning: biologically-based responses
to environment
2. B.F. Skinner
a. Operant Conditioning: how rewards and punishment
influence our behavior
3. Albert Bandura
a. Social Learning Theory: what we learn from observing others
b. Bobo doll experiment
g. Cognitive Views
i. Processes that underlie development of thinking, reasoning, and
problem- solving are key
1. Jean Piaget – posited processes of assimilation, accommodation,
and schemas, or frameworks of knowledge
2. Lev Vygotsky – emphasized the importance of learning from
other people
h. Integrative Approaches
i. Broader focus on all contexts in which humans develop are involved
1. Lev Vygotsky
a. Proposed cognitive development is “apprenticeships”
b. Argued learning is transmitted through shared meanings
of objects and events
c. Emphasized role of experts or more skilled other in
guided participation
i. The Scientific Approach to Studying Human Development
i. Scientific method – uses specific techniques and ethical guidelines to
study human behavior
ii. Methods include:
1. Descriptive
a. Case study – compilation of detailed information on
individual, family, or community through interview,
observations, and formal testing
i. Baby biography
b. Systematic observation – observational method in which
researchers go into everyday settings and observe and
record behavior while being as unobtrusive as possible
i. Naturalistic observation
ii. Laboratory observation
, c. Questionnaire – paper and pencil method that asks
respondents to answer questions
d. Survey – questionnaire administered to a large group
e. Interview – questionnaire that is administered verbally,
usually in a one on one setting
f. Psychological tests
i. Often involve measurement of intelligence
or personality traits
ii. Ex: IQ tests, Wechsler, etc.
2. Longitudinal Studies
a. Same participants are studied at various points in time to
see how they change with age
b. Pros: accurate information
c. Cons: takes too long, expensive, time-consuming
3. Correlational Research
a. Ex: Red wine and heart attack prevention go together: but at
the time of the research we didn’t know why
4. Experiments
j. Studying Development Across Time
i. Longitudinal design
ii. Cross-sectional design – compares individuals of different ages at one point
in time
1. Confounding
2. Cohort effects
iii. Sequential cohort design – several overlapping asdf
k. Ethics in Developmental Research
i. Organizational ethical guidelines
1. Organizations
a. American Psychological Association (APA)
b. Society for Research in Child Development (SRCD)
2. Recommendations and laws
a. Ethical guidelines are not merely recommendations; they
are backed up by law
1.20.15
Chapter 2 – Heredity and Environment
1. Nature (DNA) vs. Nurture (environment)
2. Molecular Genetics
a. There are about 25,000 genes in the human body.
b. How can such a simple system dictate how life unfolds?
i. Number of base pairs in DNA molecule are very large.
ii. Different species, and even different individuals within the same species,
have different numbers of base pairs in their genome.
1. Ex: Blond marries brunette, has redhead child.
