A level Sociology
Crime & Deviance
Theory & Methods
1
,2
, Contents
Crime and Deviance
1. Theoretical perspectives of crime and Pages 5 – 35
Deviance
Functionalism Pages 5 – 7
Strain theory Pages 8 – 10
Subcultural theories Pages 11 – 16
Control theory Page 17
3
, Labelling theory Pages 18 – 22
Marxism Pages 23 – 25
Neo-Marxism Pages 26 – 28
Right realism Pages 29 – 31
Left realism Pages 32 – 35
2. Patterns of crime and deviance Pages 36 – 61
Official crime statistics Pages 36 – 39
Gender and crime Pages 40 – 50
Social class and crime Pages 51 – 55
Ethnicity and crime Pages 56 – 61
3. Media and crime Pages 62 – 68
4. Globalisation, green crime and state Pages 69 – 82
crime
Globalisation Pages 69 – 72
Green crime Pages 73 – 77
4
, Human rights and state crime Pages 78 – 82
5. Crime control, punishment and Pages 83 – 99
victimology
Crime prevention Pages 83 – 87
Surveillance Pages 88 – 90
Punishment Pages 91 – 95
Victimology Pages 96 – 100
6. Past AQA examination questions Page 101 – 105
7. Glossary Pages 106 – 113
Theory
8. Theoretical framework Page 114
9. Functionalism Pages 115 – 118
10. Marxism Pages 119 – 122
11. Feminism Pages 123 – 126
12. New Right Pages 127 – 128
5
,13. Social action theories Pages 129 – 133
14. Postmodernism Pages 134 – 139
15. Sociology and science Pages 140 – 143
16. Sociology and social policy Pages 144 – 149
17. Subjectivity, objectivity and value Pages 150 – 154
freedom
18. Past AQA examination questions Pages 155 – 157
19. Current AQA examination questions Page 158 – 160
Functionalism
Functionalism sees society as being based on value consensus and that
social order is achieved due to two key factors:
▪ Socialisation – instils the shared culture into its members
▪ Social control – mechanisms include rewards for conformity, and
punishments for deviance. These help to ensure that society’s
members behave in the way that society expects.
While functionalists (like most of us) see too much crime as a threat to
social order, they also see it as inevitable and universal. There are two
main reasons why crime and deviance are found in all societies:
6
, ▪ Not everyone is equally socialised into the shared norms and
values of society, so some individuals are more likely to deviate
from them.
▪ In complex modern societies, there are a diversity of lifestyles and
values with their own distinctive norms and values
EVALUATION: A strength of functionalism is that it is useful in
showing the ways that deviance is integral to society
In Durkheim’s view, in modern societies, there is a tendency towards
anomie and normlessness – the rules governing society become weaker
and less clear cut. Although he sees crime as inevitable and universal,
he also sees it as performing four important functions:
1. Boundary maintenance – unites society’s members in
condemning the wrongdoer. In Durkheim’s view, the purpose
of punishment is to reaffirm society’s norms and values, and
promote social solidarity. This is often done through the ritual
of a courtroom, which publicly stigmatises the offender.
EVALUATION: Some crimes do not promote social
solidarity and may lead to people becoming isolated and
frightened
2. Enables social change – Durkheim argues that all change
starts with an act of deviance. People with new ideas and
beliefs must not be suppressed and stifled. In the long run, their
ideas may give rise to a new culture. If these ideas are
suppressed, society may stagnate and be unable to change
3. Acting as a safety valve – deviance can act as a safety
valve. For instance, mass violent protest demonstrations
might be seen as an outlet for expressions of discontent
avoiding wider and more serious challenges to social order.
EVALUATION: This idea is supported by Davis (1937) who
argues that prostitution acts as a safety valve for the
release of men’s sexual frustrations without threatening
the monogamous nuclear family
7
, 4. Acting as a warning device – that society is not working
properly. High rates of suicide, truancy from school and drug
addiction point to underlying social problems that need to be
solved before more serious threats develop. EVALUATION:
This is supported by Cohen (1955) who also sees crime as
acting as a warning device, which can be useful as it
alerts policy makers to make necessary changes
Therefore, for Durkheim, neither a very high or very low level of crime is
desirable for society:
▪ Too much crime = threatens to tear society apart
▪ Too little crime = society is too repressive and controlling
EVALUATION: While Durkheim says that too little, as well as too
much crime is bad for society, he does not say how much is an
acceptable amount
Durkheim imagined a ‘society of saints’ populated by perfect individuals.
In such a society, there would no murder; robbery or assault, but there
would still be deviance. The general standards of behaviour would be so
high that the slightest slip would be regarded as a serious offence. For
instance, the individual who simply showed bad taste, or was simply
impolite, would attract strong disapproval from other members of society.
Crime can therefore be functional. EVALUATION: While functionalists
point out that crime can be functional, this is not always the case.
For instance, crime is never functional for victims or their families.
Check your knowledge and understanding
1. What are the two things that make social order possible?
2. What are the two reasons why crime and deviance is universal
and inevitable?
3. Explain and evaluate the idea of boundary maintenance
4. Explain what is meant by the idea that crime enables social
change
5. Explain and evaluate the idea that crime acts as a safety valve
8
,6. Explain and evaluate the idea that crime acts as a warning
device
7. What does Durkheim say the impact of too little as well as too
much crime would be on society?
8. Suggest a strength of the functionalist approach of crime and
deviance
9. Suggest three limitations of the functionalist approach of crime
and deviance
9
, Strain theory
Strain theory argues that people engage in criminal and deviant
behaviour when they are unable to achieve goals through legitimate
means. For instance, poor people may become frustrated with their
financial situation and resort to stealing. Strain theory was developed by
the functionalist Robert Merton (1938) who argued that Americans are
expected to pursue the goal of success and the high status that goes with
it. This means education, self discipline and hard work in a career. The
ideology of the ‘American Dream’ tells their country that it is
meritocratic – one where everyone can succeed based upon their own
ability and effort. EVALUATION: There is a wealth of evidence that
meritocracy does not exist, and that people’s achievements are
often shaped by their social class, gender and ethnicity. Another
problem with this is that it assumes there is a value consensus –
that everyone strives for money success, and ignores the possibility
that we may not all start off with the same goals.
Strain theory states that when people cannot achieve the American
Dream through legitimate methods, e.g. making an effort at school,
people turn to illegitimate methods, e.g. criminal acts such as robbery or
drug dealing. EVALUATION: A limitation of strain theory is that it
only accounts for utilitarian crime for monetary gain, and does not
account for non-utilitarian crime, e.g. assault and vandalism.
10
Crime & Deviance
Theory & Methods
1
,2
, Contents
Crime and Deviance
1. Theoretical perspectives of crime and Pages 5 – 35
Deviance
Functionalism Pages 5 – 7
Strain theory Pages 8 – 10
Subcultural theories Pages 11 – 16
Control theory Page 17
3
, Labelling theory Pages 18 – 22
Marxism Pages 23 – 25
Neo-Marxism Pages 26 – 28
Right realism Pages 29 – 31
Left realism Pages 32 – 35
2. Patterns of crime and deviance Pages 36 – 61
Official crime statistics Pages 36 – 39
Gender and crime Pages 40 – 50
Social class and crime Pages 51 – 55
Ethnicity and crime Pages 56 – 61
3. Media and crime Pages 62 – 68
4. Globalisation, green crime and state Pages 69 – 82
crime
Globalisation Pages 69 – 72
Green crime Pages 73 – 77
4
, Human rights and state crime Pages 78 – 82
5. Crime control, punishment and Pages 83 – 99
victimology
Crime prevention Pages 83 – 87
Surveillance Pages 88 – 90
Punishment Pages 91 – 95
Victimology Pages 96 – 100
6. Past AQA examination questions Page 101 – 105
7. Glossary Pages 106 – 113
Theory
8. Theoretical framework Page 114
9. Functionalism Pages 115 – 118
10. Marxism Pages 119 – 122
11. Feminism Pages 123 – 126
12. New Right Pages 127 – 128
5
,13. Social action theories Pages 129 – 133
14. Postmodernism Pages 134 – 139
15. Sociology and science Pages 140 – 143
16. Sociology and social policy Pages 144 – 149
17. Subjectivity, objectivity and value Pages 150 – 154
freedom
18. Past AQA examination questions Pages 155 – 157
19. Current AQA examination questions Page 158 – 160
Functionalism
Functionalism sees society as being based on value consensus and that
social order is achieved due to two key factors:
▪ Socialisation – instils the shared culture into its members
▪ Social control – mechanisms include rewards for conformity, and
punishments for deviance. These help to ensure that society’s
members behave in the way that society expects.
While functionalists (like most of us) see too much crime as a threat to
social order, they also see it as inevitable and universal. There are two
main reasons why crime and deviance are found in all societies:
6
, ▪ Not everyone is equally socialised into the shared norms and
values of society, so some individuals are more likely to deviate
from them.
▪ In complex modern societies, there are a diversity of lifestyles and
values with their own distinctive norms and values
EVALUATION: A strength of functionalism is that it is useful in
showing the ways that deviance is integral to society
In Durkheim’s view, in modern societies, there is a tendency towards
anomie and normlessness – the rules governing society become weaker
and less clear cut. Although he sees crime as inevitable and universal,
he also sees it as performing four important functions:
1. Boundary maintenance – unites society’s members in
condemning the wrongdoer. In Durkheim’s view, the purpose
of punishment is to reaffirm society’s norms and values, and
promote social solidarity. This is often done through the ritual
of a courtroom, which publicly stigmatises the offender.
EVALUATION: Some crimes do not promote social
solidarity and may lead to people becoming isolated and
frightened
2. Enables social change – Durkheim argues that all change
starts with an act of deviance. People with new ideas and
beliefs must not be suppressed and stifled. In the long run, their
ideas may give rise to a new culture. If these ideas are
suppressed, society may stagnate and be unable to change
3. Acting as a safety valve – deviance can act as a safety
valve. For instance, mass violent protest demonstrations
might be seen as an outlet for expressions of discontent
avoiding wider and more serious challenges to social order.
EVALUATION: This idea is supported by Davis (1937) who
argues that prostitution acts as a safety valve for the
release of men’s sexual frustrations without threatening
the monogamous nuclear family
7
, 4. Acting as a warning device – that society is not working
properly. High rates of suicide, truancy from school and drug
addiction point to underlying social problems that need to be
solved before more serious threats develop. EVALUATION:
This is supported by Cohen (1955) who also sees crime as
acting as a warning device, which can be useful as it
alerts policy makers to make necessary changes
Therefore, for Durkheim, neither a very high or very low level of crime is
desirable for society:
▪ Too much crime = threatens to tear society apart
▪ Too little crime = society is too repressive and controlling
EVALUATION: While Durkheim says that too little, as well as too
much crime is bad for society, he does not say how much is an
acceptable amount
Durkheim imagined a ‘society of saints’ populated by perfect individuals.
In such a society, there would no murder; robbery or assault, but there
would still be deviance. The general standards of behaviour would be so
high that the slightest slip would be regarded as a serious offence. For
instance, the individual who simply showed bad taste, or was simply
impolite, would attract strong disapproval from other members of society.
Crime can therefore be functional. EVALUATION: While functionalists
point out that crime can be functional, this is not always the case.
For instance, crime is never functional for victims or their families.
Check your knowledge and understanding
1. What are the two things that make social order possible?
2. What are the two reasons why crime and deviance is universal
and inevitable?
3. Explain and evaluate the idea of boundary maintenance
4. Explain what is meant by the idea that crime enables social
change
5. Explain and evaluate the idea that crime acts as a safety valve
8
,6. Explain and evaluate the idea that crime acts as a warning
device
7. What does Durkheim say the impact of too little as well as too
much crime would be on society?
8. Suggest a strength of the functionalist approach of crime and
deviance
9. Suggest three limitations of the functionalist approach of crime
and deviance
9
, Strain theory
Strain theory argues that people engage in criminal and deviant
behaviour when they are unable to achieve goals through legitimate
means. For instance, poor people may become frustrated with their
financial situation and resort to stealing. Strain theory was developed by
the functionalist Robert Merton (1938) who argued that Americans are
expected to pursue the goal of success and the high status that goes with
it. This means education, self discipline and hard work in a career. The
ideology of the ‘American Dream’ tells their country that it is
meritocratic – one where everyone can succeed based upon their own
ability and effort. EVALUATION: There is a wealth of evidence that
meritocracy does not exist, and that people’s achievements are
often shaped by their social class, gender and ethnicity. Another
problem with this is that it assumes there is a value consensus –
that everyone strives for money success, and ignores the possibility
that we may not all start off with the same goals.
Strain theory states that when people cannot achieve the American
Dream through legitimate methods, e.g. making an effort at school,
people turn to illegitimate methods, e.g. criminal acts such as robbery or
drug dealing. EVALUATION: A limitation of strain theory is that it
only accounts for utilitarian crime for monetary gain, and does not
account for non-utilitarian crime, e.g. assault and vandalism.
10
