UNIT 2 THEORIES OF HUMAN
DEVELOPMENT
Structure
2.0 Introduction
2.1 Objectives
2.2 Psychodynamic Theories
2.2.1 Sigmund Freud’s Theory
2.2.2 Erik Erikson’s Psychsocial Theory
2.3 Humanistic Theories
2.3.1 Abraham Maslow’s Theory
2.3.2 Carl Roger’s Theory
2.4 Behaviouristic Theories
2.4.1 Ivan Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning Theory
2.4.2 B. Frederick Skinner’s Operant Conditioning Theory
2.4.3 Difference between Classical and Operant Conditioning
2.5 Cognitive Theory
2.5.1 Jean Piaget’s Theory
2.6 Let Us Sum Up
2.7 Unit End Questions
2.8 Suggested Readings
2.0 INTRODUCTION
Have you ever wondered why children are different from adults, and require
special care? Have you ever thought of the differences in behaviour of different
individuals? These are just a few of the fascinating aspects of the field of “human
development”. This unit of Theories of Human Development introduces you to
different theories which will unfold all of the fascinating aspects of life. Theories
are like fantasies which take you into a world of ideas and suggest methods for
exploring human behaviour.
2.1 OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, you should be able to:
discuss the psychodynamic perspective of development;
enumerate the use of defense mechanisms;
list the differences between Id, Ego and Super-Ego;
explain humanistic viewpoint;
explain cognitive theory of development;
differentiate classical conditioning and operant conditioning; and
evaluate strengths and weaknesses of each theory.
18
, Theories of Human
2.2 PSYCHODYNAMIC THEORIES Development
Psychodynamics, also known as dynamic psychology, is the study of the
interrelationship of various parts of the mind, personality, or psyche as they relate
to mental, emotional, or motivational forces especially at the unconscious level.
(Hall, Calvin, S.1954).
2.2.1 Sigmund Freud’s Theory
The proponent of this theory is Sigmund Freud, who believed that human behaviour
is brought about by inner forces over which the individual has little control. He
was of the view that both conscious and unconscious forces influence the personality
of an individual.
The Structure of Personality: Freud likens that the human mind to an iceberg.
In terms of the thoughts and impulses in our minds, we are only aware of the “tip
of the iceberg.” He put forward three constituents of personality the id, the ego
and the superego.
The Id: Id refers to the raw, unorganised, inherited part whose main goal is to
reduce tension created by our primitive needs drives such as hunger, thirst, sex,
aggression etc. Id operates on pleasure principle, in which its goal is immediate
gratification of the needs and reduction of tension caused by the emergence of
needs.
The Ego: This is the “I” of the Personality. An executives, which develops as the
child interacts more and more with the world. It acts as a the buffer between the
id and the world’s realities. Ego’s job is to meet the needs of the id, while taking
into consideration the reality of the situation. The ego is responsible for higher
cognitive functions such as intelligence, thoughtfulness and learning.
The Superego: This is the moral arm of the personality. According to Freud, as
child learn to obey parents and caregiver by controlling the many Id unpulses,
learn to let training, does things as requires by parents, the child also in corporate.
The super ego represents the rights and wrongs of the society. It has two subparts:
the conscience and the ego-ideal. The conscience prevents the child from doing
morally bad things. The ego-ideal motivates the child to do what is ideal. The
superego helps to control the id’s impulses, making them less selfish and more
morally correct.
Topographical Model: Freud believed that the majority of what we experience
in our lives, the underlying emotions, beliefs, feelings, and impulses are not available
to us at a conscious level. He put forward and the concept of conscious,
preconscious and unconscious. There are explained below:
Conscious: The conscious mind includes everything that is in our awareness. This
is that aspect of our mental processing which we can think and talk about in a
rational way. Example: consciously we know we have to go for a painful test. But
we forget the appointment on that day when we have to go for test. The former
is conscious the latter is unconscious.
Unconscious: A reservoir of unacceptable or unpleasant feelings, thoughts, urges,
and memories that lie outside of our conscious awareness.
Pre conscious: This is not in our active conscious but can be accessed, if
prompted example: our old telephone number, some childhood memories etc.
19
which are stored in the preconscious.
, Life Span Development: Defense Mechanisms: When the ego is threatened by unconscious impulses, it
Introduction
employs defense mechanisms to protect the conscious self. These are called Ego
Defense Mechanisms or Defenses. When the ego has a difficult time making both
the id and the superego happy, it will employ one or more of the following
defenses.
DEFENSE DESCRIPTION EXAMPLE
1. Denial Arguing against an Denying that your
anxiety provoking physician’s diagnosis of
stimuli by stating cancer is incorrect and
that it doesn’t exist seeking a second opinion
2. Displacement Passing on the Slamming a door instead
impulses on a less of hitting a person.
threatening target Yelling at spouse after an
argument with the boss
3. Intellectualisation Avoiding Focusing on the details of
unacceptable the funeral arrangements
emotions by focusing as opposed to the sadness
on the intellectual and grief
aspects
4. Projection Passing off the When a person indulges
unacceptable in promiscuous
impulses in relationship and feels
withinself onto guilty, states that the
someone else other person is
preconscious.
5. Rationalisation Supplying a logical Stating that you were
or rational reason as fired because you didn’t
opposed to the real kiss the boss, when the
reason real reason was your poor
performance
6. Reaction Taking the opposite Having a bias against a
formation belief because the particular race or culture
true belief causes and then embracing that
anxiety race or culture to the
extreme
7. Regression Returning to a A child who is toilet
previous stage of trained starts wetting the
development bed after new sibling
arrival.
8. Repression Pushing things into Forgetting sexual abuse
the conscious. from ends childhood due
to the trauma and anxiety,
cured.
9. Sublimation Acting out Sublimating one’s your
unacceptable aggressive impulses
impulses in a socially toward a career as a
acceptable way boxer. Becoming a
surgeon because of one’s
desire to cut. Lifting
weights to release ‘pent
up’ energy
Apart from the defense mechanisms, another important as part of personality
development is the manner in which it unfolds.
20
Psychosexual Stages of Development: There are in all five stages of development.
DEVELOPMENT
Structure
2.0 Introduction
2.1 Objectives
2.2 Psychodynamic Theories
2.2.1 Sigmund Freud’s Theory
2.2.2 Erik Erikson’s Psychsocial Theory
2.3 Humanistic Theories
2.3.1 Abraham Maslow’s Theory
2.3.2 Carl Roger’s Theory
2.4 Behaviouristic Theories
2.4.1 Ivan Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning Theory
2.4.2 B. Frederick Skinner’s Operant Conditioning Theory
2.4.3 Difference between Classical and Operant Conditioning
2.5 Cognitive Theory
2.5.1 Jean Piaget’s Theory
2.6 Let Us Sum Up
2.7 Unit End Questions
2.8 Suggested Readings
2.0 INTRODUCTION
Have you ever wondered why children are different from adults, and require
special care? Have you ever thought of the differences in behaviour of different
individuals? These are just a few of the fascinating aspects of the field of “human
development”. This unit of Theories of Human Development introduces you to
different theories which will unfold all of the fascinating aspects of life. Theories
are like fantasies which take you into a world of ideas and suggest methods for
exploring human behaviour.
2.1 OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, you should be able to:
discuss the psychodynamic perspective of development;
enumerate the use of defense mechanisms;
list the differences between Id, Ego and Super-Ego;
explain humanistic viewpoint;
explain cognitive theory of development;
differentiate classical conditioning and operant conditioning; and
evaluate strengths and weaknesses of each theory.
18
, Theories of Human
2.2 PSYCHODYNAMIC THEORIES Development
Psychodynamics, also known as dynamic psychology, is the study of the
interrelationship of various parts of the mind, personality, or psyche as they relate
to mental, emotional, or motivational forces especially at the unconscious level.
(Hall, Calvin, S.1954).
2.2.1 Sigmund Freud’s Theory
The proponent of this theory is Sigmund Freud, who believed that human behaviour
is brought about by inner forces over which the individual has little control. He
was of the view that both conscious and unconscious forces influence the personality
of an individual.
The Structure of Personality: Freud likens that the human mind to an iceberg.
In terms of the thoughts and impulses in our minds, we are only aware of the “tip
of the iceberg.” He put forward three constituents of personality the id, the ego
and the superego.
The Id: Id refers to the raw, unorganised, inherited part whose main goal is to
reduce tension created by our primitive needs drives such as hunger, thirst, sex,
aggression etc. Id operates on pleasure principle, in which its goal is immediate
gratification of the needs and reduction of tension caused by the emergence of
needs.
The Ego: This is the “I” of the Personality. An executives, which develops as the
child interacts more and more with the world. It acts as a the buffer between the
id and the world’s realities. Ego’s job is to meet the needs of the id, while taking
into consideration the reality of the situation. The ego is responsible for higher
cognitive functions such as intelligence, thoughtfulness and learning.
The Superego: This is the moral arm of the personality. According to Freud, as
child learn to obey parents and caregiver by controlling the many Id unpulses,
learn to let training, does things as requires by parents, the child also in corporate.
The super ego represents the rights and wrongs of the society. It has two subparts:
the conscience and the ego-ideal. The conscience prevents the child from doing
morally bad things. The ego-ideal motivates the child to do what is ideal. The
superego helps to control the id’s impulses, making them less selfish and more
morally correct.
Topographical Model: Freud believed that the majority of what we experience
in our lives, the underlying emotions, beliefs, feelings, and impulses are not available
to us at a conscious level. He put forward and the concept of conscious,
preconscious and unconscious. There are explained below:
Conscious: The conscious mind includes everything that is in our awareness. This
is that aspect of our mental processing which we can think and talk about in a
rational way. Example: consciously we know we have to go for a painful test. But
we forget the appointment on that day when we have to go for test. The former
is conscious the latter is unconscious.
Unconscious: A reservoir of unacceptable or unpleasant feelings, thoughts, urges,
and memories that lie outside of our conscious awareness.
Pre conscious: This is not in our active conscious but can be accessed, if
prompted example: our old telephone number, some childhood memories etc.
19
which are stored in the preconscious.
, Life Span Development: Defense Mechanisms: When the ego is threatened by unconscious impulses, it
Introduction
employs defense mechanisms to protect the conscious self. These are called Ego
Defense Mechanisms or Defenses. When the ego has a difficult time making both
the id and the superego happy, it will employ one or more of the following
defenses.
DEFENSE DESCRIPTION EXAMPLE
1. Denial Arguing against an Denying that your
anxiety provoking physician’s diagnosis of
stimuli by stating cancer is incorrect and
that it doesn’t exist seeking a second opinion
2. Displacement Passing on the Slamming a door instead
impulses on a less of hitting a person.
threatening target Yelling at spouse after an
argument with the boss
3. Intellectualisation Avoiding Focusing on the details of
unacceptable the funeral arrangements
emotions by focusing as opposed to the sadness
on the intellectual and grief
aspects
4. Projection Passing off the When a person indulges
unacceptable in promiscuous
impulses in relationship and feels
withinself onto guilty, states that the
someone else other person is
preconscious.
5. Rationalisation Supplying a logical Stating that you were
or rational reason as fired because you didn’t
opposed to the real kiss the boss, when the
reason real reason was your poor
performance
6. Reaction Taking the opposite Having a bias against a
formation belief because the particular race or culture
true belief causes and then embracing that
anxiety race or culture to the
extreme
7. Regression Returning to a A child who is toilet
previous stage of trained starts wetting the
development bed after new sibling
arrival.
8. Repression Pushing things into Forgetting sexual abuse
the conscious. from ends childhood due
to the trauma and anxiety,
cured.
9. Sublimation Acting out Sublimating one’s your
unacceptable aggressive impulses
impulses in a socially toward a career as a
acceptable way boxer. Becoming a
surgeon because of one’s
desire to cut. Lifting
weights to release ‘pent
up’ energy
Apart from the defense mechanisms, another important as part of personality
development is the manner in which it unfolds.
20
Psychosexual Stages of Development: There are in all five stages of development.
