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Machine Learning and Data mining

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Machine Learning and Data Mining
Lecture Notes
CSC 411/D11
Computer Science Department
University of Toronto
Version: February 6, 2012




Copyright c 2010 Aaron Hertzmann and David Fleet

,CSC 411 / CSC D11 CONTENTS


Contents
Conventions and Notation iv

1 Introduction to Machine Learning 1
1.1 Types of Machine Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2 A simple problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

2 Linear Regression 5
2.1 The 1D case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.2 Multidimensional inputs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.3 Multidimensional outputs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

3 Nonlinear Regression 9
3.1 Basis function regression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3.2 Overfitting and Regularization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
3.3 Artificial Neural Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.4 K-Nearest Neighbors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

4 Quadratics 17
4.1 Optimizing a quadratic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

5 Basic Probability Theory 21
5.1 Classical logic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
5.2 Basic definitions and rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
5.3 Discrete random variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
5.4 Binomial and Multinomial distributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
5.5 Mathematical expectation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

6 Probability Density Functions (PDFs) 27
6.1 Mathematical expectation, mean, and variance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
6.2 Uniform distributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
6.3 Gaussian distributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
6.3.1 Diagonalization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
6.3.2 Conditional Gaussian distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

7 Estimation 35
7.1 Learning a binomial distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
7.2 Bayes’ Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
7.3 Parameter estimation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
7.3.1 MAP, ML, and Bayes’ Estimates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
7.4 Learning Gaussians . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39


Copyright c 2011 Aaron Hertzmann and David Fleet i

,CSC 411 / CSC D11 CONTENTS


7.5 MAP nonlinear regression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

8 Classification 42
8.1 Class Conditionals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
8.2 Logistic Regression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
8.3 Artificial Neural Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
8.4 K-Nearest Neighbors Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
8.5 Generative vs. Discriminative models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
8.6 Classification by LS Regression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
8.7 Naı̈ve Bayes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
8.7.1 Discrete Input Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
8.7.2 Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

9 Gradient Descent 53
9.1 Finite differences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

10 Cross Validation 56
10.1 Cross-Validation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56

11 Bayesian Methods 59
11.1 Bayesian Regression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
11.2 Hyperparameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
11.3 Bayesian Model Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

12 Monte Carlo Methods 69
12.1 Sampling Gaussians . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
12.2 Importance Sampling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
12.3 Markov Chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

13 Principal Components Analysis 75
13.1 The model and learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
13.2 Reconstruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
13.3 Properties of PCA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
13.4 Whitening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
13.5 Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
13.6 Probabilistic PCA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79

14 Lagrange Multipliers 83
14.1 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
14.2 Least-Squares PCA in one-dimension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
14.3 Multiple constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
14.4 Inequality constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90


Copyright c 2011 Aaron Hertzmann and David Fleet ii

, CSC 411 / CSC D11 CONTENTS


15 Clustering 92
15.1 K-means Clustering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
15.2 K-medoids Clustering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
15.3 Mixtures of Gaussians . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
15.3.1 Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
15.3.2 Numerical issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
15.3.3 The Free Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
15.3.4 Proofs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
15.3.5 Relation to K-means . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
15.3.6 Degeneracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
15.4 Determining the number of clusters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101

16 Hidden Markov Models 103
16.1 Markov Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
16.2 Hidden Markov Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
16.3 Viterbi Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
16.4 The Forward-Backward Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
16.5 EM: The Baum-Welch Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
16.5.1 Numerical issues: renormalization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
16.5.2 Free Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
16.6 Most likely state sequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114

17 Support Vector Machines 115
17.1 Maximizing the margin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
17.2 Slack Variables for Non-Separable Datasets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
17.3 Loss Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
17.4 The Lagrangian and the Kernel Trick . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
17.5 Choosing parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
17.6 Software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122

18 AdaBoost 123
18.1 Decision stumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
18.2 Why does it work? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
18.3 Early stopping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128




Copyright c 2011 Aaron Hertzmann and David Fleet iii

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