1
, 2
Preface........................................................................................................................................ 6
Preface to the first edition .......................................................................................................... 8
Chapter 1 - A Tutorial Introduction ........................................................................................... 9
1.1 Getting Started.................................................................................................................. 9
1.2 Variables and Arithmetic Expressions ........................................................................... 11
1.3 The for statement............................................................................................................ 16
1.4 Symbolic Constants........................................................................................................ 17
1.5 Character Input and Output ............................................................................................ 18
1.5.1 File Copying............................................................................................................ 18
1.5.2 Character Counting ................................................................................................. 20
1.5.3 Line Counting.......................................................................................................... 21
1.5.4 Word Counting........................................................................................................ 22
1.6 Arrays ............................................................................................................................. 23
1.7 Functions ........................................................................................................................ 25
1.8 Arguments - Call by Value............................................................................................. 28
1.9 Character Arrays ............................................................................................................ 29
1.10 External Variables and Scope ...................................................................................... 31
Chapter 2 - Types, Operators and Expressions ........................................................................ 35
2.1 Variable Names .............................................................................................................. 35
2.2 Data Types and Sizes ..................................................................................................... 35
2.3 Constants ........................................................................................................................ 36
2.4 Declarations.................................................................................................................... 39
2.5 Arithmetic Operators...................................................................................................... 40
2.6 Relational and Logical Operators................................................................................... 40
2.7 Type Conversions........................................................................................................... 41
2.8 Increment and Decrement Operators.............................................................................. 44
2.9 Bitwise Operators........................................................................................................... 46
2.10 Assignment Operators and Expressions....................................................................... 47
2.11 Conditional Expressions............................................................................................... 49
2.12 Precedence and Order of Evaluation............................................................................ 49
Chapter 3 - Control Flow ......................................................................................................... 52
3.1 Statements and Blocks ................................................................................................... 52
3.2 If-Else ............................................................................................................................. 52
3.3 Else-If ............................................................................................................................. 53
3.4 Switch............................................................................................................................. 54
3.5 Loops - While and For ................................................................................................... 56
3.6 Loops - Do-While........................................................................................................... 58
3.7 Break and Continue........................................................................................................ 59
3.8 Goto and labels............................................................................................................... 60
Chapter 4 - Functions and Program Structure.......................................................................... 62
4.1 Basics of Functions ........................................................................................................ 62
4.2 Functions Returning Non-integers ................................................................................. 65
4.3 External Variables .......................................................................................................... 67
4.4 Scope Rules .................................................................................................................... 72
4.5 Header Files.................................................................................................................... 73
4.6 Static Variables .............................................................................................................. 75
4.7 Register Variables .......................................................................................................... 75
4.8 Block Structure............................................................................................................... 76
4.9 Initialization ................................................................................................................... 76
4.10 Recursion...................................................................................................................... 78
4.11 The C Preprocessor ...................................................................................................... 79
, 3
4.11.1 File Inclusion......................................................................................................... 79
4.11.2 Macro Substitution ................................................................................................ 80
4.11.3 Conditional Inclusion ............................................................................................ 82
Chapter 5 - Pointers and Arrays ............................................................................................... 83
5.1 Pointers and Addresses................................................................................................... 83
5.2 Pointers and Function Arguments .................................................................................. 84
5.3 Pointers and Arrays ........................................................................................................ 87
5.4 Address Arithmetic ........................................................................................................ 90
5.5 Character Pointers and Functions................................................................................... 93
5.6 Pointer Arrays; Pointers to Pointers ............................................................................... 96
5.7 Multi-dimensional Arrays .............................................................................................. 99
5.8 Initialization of Pointer Arrays..................................................................................... 101
5.9 Pointers vs. Multi-dimensional Arrays......................................................................... 101
5.10 Command-line Arguments ......................................................................................... 102
5.11 Pointers to Functions.................................................................................................. 106
5.12 Complicated Declarations .......................................................................................... 108
Chapter 6 - Structures............................................................................................................. 114
6.1 Basics of Structures...................................................................................................... 114
6.2 Structures and Functions .............................................................................................. 116
6.3 Arrays of Structures ..................................................................................................... 118
6.4 Pointers to Structures ................................................................................................... 122
6.5 Self-referential Structures ............................................................................................ 124
6.6 Table Lookup ............................................................................................................... 127
6.7 Typedef......................................................................................................................... 129
6.8 Unions .......................................................................................................................... 131
6.9 Bit-fields....................................................................................................................... 132
Chapter 7 - Input and Output.................................................................................................. 135
7.1 Standard Input and Output ........................................................................................... 135
7.2 Formatted Output - printf ............................................................................................. 137
7.3 Variable-length Argument Lists................................................................................... 138
7.4 Formatted Input - Scanf................................................................................................ 140
7.5 File Access ................................................................................................................... 142
7.6 Error Handling - Stderr and Exit .................................................................................. 145
7.7 Line Input and Output .................................................................................................. 146
7.8 Miscellaneous Functions .............................................................................................. 147
7.8.1 String Operations................................................................................................... 147
7.8.2 Character Class Testing and Conversion .............................................................. 148
7.8.3 Ungetc ................................................................................................................... 148
7.8.4 Command Execution ............................................................................................. 148
7.8.5 Storage Management............................................................................................. 148
7.8.6 Mathematical Functions ........................................................................................ 149
7.8.7 Random Number generation ................................................................................. 149
Chapter 8 - The UNIX System Interface................................................................................ 151
8.1 File Descriptors ............................................................................................................ 151
8.2 Low Level I/O - Read and Write.................................................................................. 152
8.3 Open, Creat, Close, Unlink .......................................................................................... 153
8.4 Random Access - Lseek ............................................................................................... 155
8.5 Example - An implementation of Fopen and Getc....................................................... 156
8.6 Example - Listing Directories ...................................................................................... 159
8.7 Example - A Storage Allocator .................................................................................... 163
Appendix A - Reference Manual ........................................................................................... 168
A.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................. 168
, 4
A.2 Lexical Conventions.................................................................................................... 168
A.2.1 Tokens .................................................................................................................. 168
A.2.2 Comments............................................................................................................. 168
A.2.3 Identifiers.............................................................................................................. 168
A.2.4 Keywords.............................................................................................................. 169
A.2.5 Constants .............................................................................................................. 169
A.2.6 String Literals ....................................................................................................... 171
A.3 Syntax Notation........................................................................................................... 171
A.4 Meaning of Identifiers ................................................................................................. 171
A.4.1 Storage Class ........................................................................................................ 171
A.4.2 Basic Types .......................................................................................................... 172
A.4.3 Derived types........................................................................................................ 173
A.4.4 Type Qualifiers..................................................................................................... 173
A.5 Objects and Lvalues .................................................................................................... 173
A.6 Conversions ................................................................................................................. 173
A.6.1 Integral Promotion................................................................................................ 174
A.6.2 Integral Conversions............................................................................................. 174
A.6.3 Integer and Floating.............................................................................................. 174
A.6.4 Floating Types...................................................................................................... 174
A.6.5 Arithmetic Conversions........................................................................................ 174
A.6.6 Pointers and Integers ............................................................................................ 175
A.6.7 Void ...................................................................................................................... 176
A.6.8 Pointers to Void.................................................................................................... 176
A.7 Expressions.................................................................................................................. 176
A.7.1 Pointer Conversion ............................................................................................... 177
A.7.2 Primary Expressions............................................................................................. 177
A.7.3 Postfix Expressions .............................................................................................. 177
A.7.4 Unary Operators ................................................................................................... 179
A.7.5 Casts ..................................................................................................................... 181
A.7.6 Multiplicative Operators....................................................................................... 181
A.7.7 Additive Operators ............................................................................................... 182
A.7.8 Shift Operators ..................................................................................................... 182
A.7.9 Relational Operators............................................................................................. 183
A.7.10 Equality Operators.............................................................................................. 183
A.7.11 Bitwise AND Operator....................................................................................... 183
A.7.12 Bitwise Exclusive OR Operator ......................................................................... 184
A.7.13 Bitwise Inclusive OR Operator .......................................................................... 184
A.7.14 Logical AND Operator....................................................................................... 184
A.7.15 Logical OR Operator .......................................................................................... 184
A.7.16 Conditional Operator.......................................................................................... 184
A.7.17 Assignment Expressions..................................................................................... 185
A.7.18 Comma Operator ................................................................................................ 185
A.7.19 Constant Expressions ......................................................................................... 186
A.8 Declarations................................................................................................................. 186
A.8.1 Storage Class Specifiers ....................................................................................... 187
A.8.2 Type Specifiers..................................................................................................... 188
A.8.3 Structure and Union Declarations ........................................................................ 188
A.8.4 Enumerations........................................................................................................ 191
A.8.5 Declarators............................................................................................................ 192
A.8.6 Meaning of Declarators ........................................................................................ 193
A.8.7 Initialization.......................................................................................................... 196
A.8.8 Type names........................................................................................................... 198
, 2
Preface........................................................................................................................................ 6
Preface to the first edition .......................................................................................................... 8
Chapter 1 - A Tutorial Introduction ........................................................................................... 9
1.1 Getting Started.................................................................................................................. 9
1.2 Variables and Arithmetic Expressions ........................................................................... 11
1.3 The for statement............................................................................................................ 16
1.4 Symbolic Constants........................................................................................................ 17
1.5 Character Input and Output ............................................................................................ 18
1.5.1 File Copying............................................................................................................ 18
1.5.2 Character Counting ................................................................................................. 20
1.5.3 Line Counting.......................................................................................................... 21
1.5.4 Word Counting........................................................................................................ 22
1.6 Arrays ............................................................................................................................. 23
1.7 Functions ........................................................................................................................ 25
1.8 Arguments - Call by Value............................................................................................. 28
1.9 Character Arrays ............................................................................................................ 29
1.10 External Variables and Scope ...................................................................................... 31
Chapter 2 - Types, Operators and Expressions ........................................................................ 35
2.1 Variable Names .............................................................................................................. 35
2.2 Data Types and Sizes ..................................................................................................... 35
2.3 Constants ........................................................................................................................ 36
2.4 Declarations.................................................................................................................... 39
2.5 Arithmetic Operators...................................................................................................... 40
2.6 Relational and Logical Operators................................................................................... 40
2.7 Type Conversions........................................................................................................... 41
2.8 Increment and Decrement Operators.............................................................................. 44
2.9 Bitwise Operators........................................................................................................... 46
2.10 Assignment Operators and Expressions....................................................................... 47
2.11 Conditional Expressions............................................................................................... 49
2.12 Precedence and Order of Evaluation............................................................................ 49
Chapter 3 - Control Flow ......................................................................................................... 52
3.1 Statements and Blocks ................................................................................................... 52
3.2 If-Else ............................................................................................................................. 52
3.3 Else-If ............................................................................................................................. 53
3.4 Switch............................................................................................................................. 54
3.5 Loops - While and For ................................................................................................... 56
3.6 Loops - Do-While........................................................................................................... 58
3.7 Break and Continue........................................................................................................ 59
3.8 Goto and labels............................................................................................................... 60
Chapter 4 - Functions and Program Structure.......................................................................... 62
4.1 Basics of Functions ........................................................................................................ 62
4.2 Functions Returning Non-integers ................................................................................. 65
4.3 External Variables .......................................................................................................... 67
4.4 Scope Rules .................................................................................................................... 72
4.5 Header Files.................................................................................................................... 73
4.6 Static Variables .............................................................................................................. 75
4.7 Register Variables .......................................................................................................... 75
4.8 Block Structure............................................................................................................... 76
4.9 Initialization ................................................................................................................... 76
4.10 Recursion...................................................................................................................... 78
4.11 The C Preprocessor ...................................................................................................... 79
, 3
4.11.1 File Inclusion......................................................................................................... 79
4.11.2 Macro Substitution ................................................................................................ 80
4.11.3 Conditional Inclusion ............................................................................................ 82
Chapter 5 - Pointers and Arrays ............................................................................................... 83
5.1 Pointers and Addresses................................................................................................... 83
5.2 Pointers and Function Arguments .................................................................................. 84
5.3 Pointers and Arrays ........................................................................................................ 87
5.4 Address Arithmetic ........................................................................................................ 90
5.5 Character Pointers and Functions................................................................................... 93
5.6 Pointer Arrays; Pointers to Pointers ............................................................................... 96
5.7 Multi-dimensional Arrays .............................................................................................. 99
5.8 Initialization of Pointer Arrays..................................................................................... 101
5.9 Pointers vs. Multi-dimensional Arrays......................................................................... 101
5.10 Command-line Arguments ......................................................................................... 102
5.11 Pointers to Functions.................................................................................................. 106
5.12 Complicated Declarations .......................................................................................... 108
Chapter 6 - Structures............................................................................................................. 114
6.1 Basics of Structures...................................................................................................... 114
6.2 Structures and Functions .............................................................................................. 116
6.3 Arrays of Structures ..................................................................................................... 118
6.4 Pointers to Structures ................................................................................................... 122
6.5 Self-referential Structures ............................................................................................ 124
6.6 Table Lookup ............................................................................................................... 127
6.7 Typedef......................................................................................................................... 129
6.8 Unions .......................................................................................................................... 131
6.9 Bit-fields....................................................................................................................... 132
Chapter 7 - Input and Output.................................................................................................. 135
7.1 Standard Input and Output ........................................................................................... 135
7.2 Formatted Output - printf ............................................................................................. 137
7.3 Variable-length Argument Lists................................................................................... 138
7.4 Formatted Input - Scanf................................................................................................ 140
7.5 File Access ................................................................................................................... 142
7.6 Error Handling - Stderr and Exit .................................................................................. 145
7.7 Line Input and Output .................................................................................................. 146
7.8 Miscellaneous Functions .............................................................................................. 147
7.8.1 String Operations................................................................................................... 147
7.8.2 Character Class Testing and Conversion .............................................................. 148
7.8.3 Ungetc ................................................................................................................... 148
7.8.4 Command Execution ............................................................................................. 148
7.8.5 Storage Management............................................................................................. 148
7.8.6 Mathematical Functions ........................................................................................ 149
7.8.7 Random Number generation ................................................................................. 149
Chapter 8 - The UNIX System Interface................................................................................ 151
8.1 File Descriptors ............................................................................................................ 151
8.2 Low Level I/O - Read and Write.................................................................................. 152
8.3 Open, Creat, Close, Unlink .......................................................................................... 153
8.4 Random Access - Lseek ............................................................................................... 155
8.5 Example - An implementation of Fopen and Getc....................................................... 156
8.6 Example - Listing Directories ...................................................................................... 159
8.7 Example - A Storage Allocator .................................................................................... 163
Appendix A - Reference Manual ........................................................................................... 168
A.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................. 168
, 4
A.2 Lexical Conventions.................................................................................................... 168
A.2.1 Tokens .................................................................................................................. 168
A.2.2 Comments............................................................................................................. 168
A.2.3 Identifiers.............................................................................................................. 168
A.2.4 Keywords.............................................................................................................. 169
A.2.5 Constants .............................................................................................................. 169
A.2.6 String Literals ....................................................................................................... 171
A.3 Syntax Notation........................................................................................................... 171
A.4 Meaning of Identifiers ................................................................................................. 171
A.4.1 Storage Class ........................................................................................................ 171
A.4.2 Basic Types .......................................................................................................... 172
A.4.3 Derived types........................................................................................................ 173
A.4.4 Type Qualifiers..................................................................................................... 173
A.5 Objects and Lvalues .................................................................................................... 173
A.6 Conversions ................................................................................................................. 173
A.6.1 Integral Promotion................................................................................................ 174
A.6.2 Integral Conversions............................................................................................. 174
A.6.3 Integer and Floating.............................................................................................. 174
A.6.4 Floating Types...................................................................................................... 174
A.6.5 Arithmetic Conversions........................................................................................ 174
A.6.6 Pointers and Integers ............................................................................................ 175
A.6.7 Void ...................................................................................................................... 176
A.6.8 Pointers to Void.................................................................................................... 176
A.7 Expressions.................................................................................................................. 176
A.7.1 Pointer Conversion ............................................................................................... 177
A.7.2 Primary Expressions............................................................................................. 177
A.7.3 Postfix Expressions .............................................................................................. 177
A.7.4 Unary Operators ................................................................................................... 179
A.7.5 Casts ..................................................................................................................... 181
A.7.6 Multiplicative Operators....................................................................................... 181
A.7.7 Additive Operators ............................................................................................... 182
A.7.8 Shift Operators ..................................................................................................... 182
A.7.9 Relational Operators............................................................................................. 183
A.7.10 Equality Operators.............................................................................................. 183
A.7.11 Bitwise AND Operator....................................................................................... 183
A.7.12 Bitwise Exclusive OR Operator ......................................................................... 184
A.7.13 Bitwise Inclusive OR Operator .......................................................................... 184
A.7.14 Logical AND Operator....................................................................................... 184
A.7.15 Logical OR Operator .......................................................................................... 184
A.7.16 Conditional Operator.......................................................................................... 184
A.7.17 Assignment Expressions..................................................................................... 185
A.7.18 Comma Operator ................................................................................................ 185
A.7.19 Constant Expressions ......................................................................................... 186
A.8 Declarations................................................................................................................. 186
A.8.1 Storage Class Specifiers ....................................................................................... 187
A.8.2 Type Specifiers..................................................................................................... 188
A.8.3 Structure and Union Declarations ........................................................................ 188
A.8.4 Enumerations........................................................................................................ 191
A.8.5 Declarators............................................................................................................ 192
A.8.6 Meaning of Declarators ........................................................................................ 193
A.8.7 Initialization.......................................................................................................... 196
A.8.8 Type names........................................................................................................... 198
