MY2601- UNIVERSAL FACTORS 1-6 2023 with 100% questions and answers

demography scientific study of populations and, study of births, deaths etc. which illustrate the conditions of life in communities. fertility (birth rate) is influenced by the age at which people become sexually active and their use of contraceptives- which may reflect on social and religious values of that community. Birthrate in SA is 2.7 children per woman Mortality (the incidence of deaths) is influenced by nutritional standards, opportunity for immunisation, sanitation , health care and health education. For South Africans, life expectancy at birth is estimated at 49.0 years for males and 52.5 years for (Statistics South Africa 2006). Migration (movement from one area to another) from one country or area to another is influenced by considerations such as people's evaluation of employ- ment opportunities as well as in of sensitive issues such as race and religion. For South Africa it is estimated that the large outmigration of whites will decline substantially over time and that the immigration of Africans will continue demographic terms, urbanisation refers to: (+) the places where people live which have been defined as urban (+) the physical influx of people across boundaries toward areas which have been defined as urban (+) the reclassification of certain areas as urban areas Urban growth refers to the increase in the population of urban areas. This increase may be attributed to migration from rural areas, relocation of urban boundaries, the natural increase in the established urban population and the relocation of people from other urban areas. population density many people living closely together which raises frustration levels which can result in violence features of urban life that contribute to criminality by Barkan and Bryjak (+) population density (+) crowded conditions = lack of privacy (+) availability of alcohol + illegal substances at places where people gather (+) socially, bars and shebeens can contribute to violence and other crime (+) overcrowded transportation services that raises frustration (+) limited employment opportunities (+) relative deprivation Macionis and Parrillo highlight proposals to reduce high crime rates in cities: (+) improving the physical design of buildings: (+) having street patrols by local citizens (+) targeting vulnerable areas (+) creating citizens' boards (+) adopting a policy of tougher punishment (+) instilling a sense of social responsibility: problems cities face that contribute to criminality (+) lack of proper services in poorer neighbourhoods (+) lack of control in terms of land development (+) population density (+) household overcrowding (+) presence of places for social gatherings (+) unemployment Rapid urbanisation places increasing pressure on urban social resources which in turn causes conflict in certain areas. Why is rapid urbanisation of interest to criminologists? It creates the potential for crime. The increase in the population in urban areas cannot only be attributed to migration from rural areas, but also to a of urban boundaries, the natural increase in the established population and the relocation of people from other urban areas. This is known as urban growth. Which of the following aspects contribute the most to the high crime rate in certain urban areas according to Barkan and Bryjak (2004)? unemployment, overcrowding and relative deprivation Urban South Africans clearly link the presence of ..................... with the country's social ills. foreigners and non-nationals Adam Smith (): founder of capitalism (1) private ownership is central to this. (2) Competition. Competition is supposed to prevent the formation of monopolies. (3) Supply and demand (4) non-interventionist or laissez-faire approach is vital Karl Marx (): father of socialism (+) regarded capitalism as a transient phase which would be followed by socialism (+) when the organised working class (the proletariat) overthrew the dominant owners or bourgeoisie. (+) In Marx's view, there should be strict limits to private enterprise. All property, and the production process, should be controlled by the state to the benefit and in the interests of the masses, (+) private ownership leads to exploitation and inequality. (+) Personal profit must be replaced by a system in which everyone has equal access to resources, and all resources are utilised to the advantage of everyone. (+) state control of the markets was a vital way of providing for the people's needs. (+) A socialist state would therefore be actively involved in economic planning John Maynard Keynes (): creator of the concept of the mixed economy (+) balance between capitalism and socialism. (+) state should be actively involved in economic affairs to prevent disasters like the Depression. (+) state should help to create work for everyone, for instance by lowering interest rates, which would stimulate investment. (+) state should also initiate programmes which would increase the incomes of the needy. They would have more money, and by spending it they would stimulate the economy. (+) also supported private ownership and profit (the accumulation of wealth), but he thought that capitalism should be subject to certain controls in order to prevent crisis situations (+) Describe John Maynard Keynes's (1883- 1946) concept of a mixed economy? It means active involvement by the state in economic affairs to prevent national disasters and the private accumulation of wealth subject to state control. The unemployed comprise of all persons above a specified age who during the reference period were: (a) Without work (were not in paid employment or self-employment) (b) Currently available for work, (were available for paid employment or self- employment ) (c) Seeking work, (taken specific steps to seek employment or self-employment.) unemployed person someone without paid work (voluntarily or involuntarily) who is available for work, regardless of whether he or she is actively looking for work. Voluntary unemployment people who prefer not to work - The personal and social costs of this kind of unemployment are usually not great, because it is the person's own choice to be out of work. Enforced or involuntary unemployment people who are out of work without having any personal control over their situation. Kates, Greeff and Hagen state clearly that these people have not suddenly become lazy or unwilling to work. Usually arises as a result of events such as resignation, staff reduction and early retirement. temporary unemployment: This arises as a result of the time lapse between the end of one job and the start of the next. seasonal unemployment: This is caused by seasonal fluctuations in job opportunities, for instance in the fields of recreation, tourism and construction. There is no work lasting the whole year, and job opportunities arise only at certain times of the year. cyclical unemployment: This arises from cyclical in such as construction and export of raw materials. These types of activities do not take place consistently, and can vary from time to time as a consequence of demand. structural unemployment This is caused by changing demands, and therefore an oversupply of workers in some occupations at a given time as a result of changes in the economy and technology. Think for instance of work, which can diminish, leaving engineers and technicians without work. demographic unemployment The labour force in a particular area might grow faster than job opportunities can be provided. There will therefore be fewer job opportunities than there are workers in that area Causes of unemployment (+) Structural factors (+) Natural causes (+) Balance of payments (+) Lack of investment in a country (+) Falling exports (+) Apartheid policy (+) Inflation (+) Automation (+) Rationalisation (+) Affirmative action (+) Privatisation (+) Crime as a factor (+) Skills shortages (+) Education system connection between unemployment and crime= Motivation perspective (+) positive link between poor economic conditions (unemployment) and crime. (+) frustration which arises when people are unable to keep a job and to maintain or improve their standard of living (the higher the frustration the higher the crime rate) (+) second source of motivation to commit crime is the process of rational choice, in which individuals weigh up the advantages and disadvantages of crime compared to those of living a law-abiding life. (unemployed people reason that they do not have much to lose if they are caught) (+) connection between unemployment and crime= Opportunity perspective (+) crime arises because at a given place and time there are both potential offenders and suitable victims. (+) when unemployment increases, more people are at home and the possibility of crimes such as burglaries will be reduced. (+) Unemployed parents supervise their children better, which also diminishes the opportunities for committing crimes (+) parental supervision diminishes when young people are employed, which can increase their opportunities to commit crime (+) unemployment results in poverty, and that poverty in its turn causes crime. (+) Unemployment is therefore also an indicator of general economic conditions, (+) unemployment does not necessarily introduce juveniles to crime, but that it does encourage those who already show deviant tendencies to embark on criminal activities. (+) Which type of unemployment is best described in the following paragraph? "Thousands of job opportunities were created as a result of the preparations for the 2010 FIFA Soccer World Cup. The building of soccer stadiums across the country is a good example of this. However, in the aftermath of the World Cup, unemployment will increase again.'' structural unemployment Some criminologists are of the opinion that there is a clear connection between unemployment and crime and have attributed the motivation perspective and the opportunity perspective to this phenomenon. Which statement best describes the motivation perspective? There is a positive link between the frustration caused by poor economic conditions and criminal activity. The researcher Dunstan (Watts 1992) studied the connection between variables such as unemployment, poor housing, isolation and level of income with pathological (disease) conditions such as crime, juvenile delinquency and broken homes. What is the one underlying factor which connects these variables? male unemployment Voluntary unemployment is sometimes associated with ............... because there are people who simply prefer not to work. idleness poverty line -Mollie Orshansky in 1965. -A person with a certain income and corresponding expenditures will fall beneath this poverty line or subsistence level and can be regarded as poor. -Curran and Renzetti:three times the price of a minimally nutritious diet. Orshansky Poverty acc to government's Poverty Policy Document the denial of opportunities and choices most basic to human development, to lead a long, healthy, creative life and to enjoy a decent standard of living and dignity Absolute poverty individual's relative failure to maintain one or more of the absolute or predetermined norms and standards used by the community as suitable measures of the minimum necessities of life or of a minimally acceptable standard of living. Relative poverty Relative deprivation is with reference to every community's norms and values, and is in this sense a universal and permanent characteristic of the community. A global standard for the distribution of poverty Poverty Headcount Index poverty gap. The extent of the distribution, as measured by the deprivation per household relative to the minimum accepted standard structural key features of unemployment and work shortages (+) Insufficient work in total, compared to the size of the population. (+) mismatch of demand and supply of labour especially where the education and skills profiles of the available labour force not match up with the demand pattern in the labour market. (+) spatial distribution of work, compared to population distribution. (+) Seasonal work (+) structure of (extended) rural families and the nature of the survival strategies of the poor. small, medium and micro-enterprises form NB part of participatory economic growth by: (+) creates work at a lower cost (+) uses local resources more intensively (+) contributes to equality by producing suitable goods and services which are generally affordable (+) promotes entrepreneurship, because entrepreneurs learn by doing Cultural and personality factors that hinder lively entrepreneurial growth (+) independence and self-interest are moved to the background as a result of conflicting loyalties (+) social balance and equality between groups are often greater priorities than individual achievement (+) the boundaries between collective and individual preferences are often unclear (+) the rituals which control economic transactions are often seen as more important than the business principles which govern them (+) patronage is often preferred to a contract for organising relationships restrictions on small business development that has greatest effect on the poor (+) the cost of doing business, and unfavourable market conditions (+) people's fear of what they expect to encounter from taxation and various other kinds of regulations (+) lack of finance and the demand for additional security when applying for loans (+) lack of training, skills, business support and advisory services and the inability to pay in advance in order to obtain them Rapid population growth has given rise to the following immediate causes of extreme rural poverty: (+) lack of land for subsistence farming and development, low levels of productivity and outdated technology (+) deterioration of the environment to the extent that its ability to support the community is seriously endangered, fewer education facilities, there is less access to services such as water, electricity and production resources migration, especially by economically active men, to the metropolitan areas, and the future disruption of the family and the local producer economy as economically active women also start migrating (+) high dependence on economically active people by the economically inactive as the largest concentration of economic activities occurs in the vicinity of big cities, and there are fewer job opportunities and therefore more poverty in the rural areas (+) resources going to an overextended informal sector rather than to dwindling local markets, with resulting lower profits (+) increasing dependence on subsidies and transfers. These are a meagre source of income, as they lessen over time as successful family members make new, independent lives for themselves in the towns and cities. Urban poverty (+) establishment of informal settlements as first-level access points to an urban existence for the very poor. The population density often prevents the application of traditional rural survival strategies for households such as subsistence gardening and the keeping of animals, and the residents are under pressure to turn to other strategies in order to survive. (+) a dysfunctional community life for the very poor, and the loss of elements of social capital like traditional ties and support groups regulation of the environment can be central to the creation and exacerbation of poverty as a result of the following: (+) the ability of markets to clear themselves (examples of min wage interventions in labour markets with little effect except that the people who did have work were better paid. Created unemployment + resulted in a lower total net income for the labour force as a whole. also the effects of the min wage system on the agricultural and other sectors.) (+) setting unrealistic, unaffordable standards for housing, services, businesses and others, go beyond the protection of the physical health and safety of individuals as well as the public interest (+) unjustifiable regulations and interference in people's personal decision making which are not really necessary to safeguard the public interests regulatory frameworks could introduce inefficiency into the economy, which could have a negative effect on poor people's circumstances by (+) unnecessarily complicating survival strategies (+) providing opportunities for bureaucratic corruption and inefficiency to the detriment of the poor, who often do not have enough clout to support a fair and reasonable case (+) wasting resources and diverting funds which could be better utilised in the struggle against poverty by promoting economic growth HIV/AIDS mainly aggravates the problem of poverty as a result of the following: (+) disruption of the family income base due to death of one or more breadwinners (+) many children are orphaned, many are also AIDS sufferers, making them a burden on their extended family / the responsibility of the state (+) the erosion of productivity in labour market and the effective increase in the cost of labour as a result of globalisation and the liberalisation of markets, the main aim of which is greater competitiveness (+) growing pressure on health and welfare systems, meaning that resources have to be spent on health services instead of on economic growth, consistent job creation and improving the per capita gross national product report of the Reconstruction and Development Programme mentions the following consequences of poverty: (+) Inadequate/ no access to services. running water in the house or yard/ electricity/ modern toilets and proper housing (+) The poorest of the poor live far away fromwork and have to use public transport. (+) Little education and training. Some 50% of poor people have had no schooling or did not complete primary school. (+) The health of poor people is generally bad, = productivity will be low. Most of them have no access to good medical services, or cannot afford them. (+) In general, many poor people are unemployed, although this does not apply to all of them. South Africa is regarded by many as a Third World country. What are the typical features associated with this state? large-scale urban and rural poverty, accelerated urbanisation and social and political instability ............... actually has nothing to do with the deprived status of some individuals compared to that of other people in the community where they function, but is rather calculated with reference to every community's norms and values, and is in this sense a universal and permanent characteristic of the community. Relative deprivation The researchers Guerry and Quetelet (1998) tried to identify the link between economic conditions, poverty and crime by comparing well-to-do areas with less privileged ones in France. Their research showed the following: Well-to-do areas offered more opportunities for theft because there were more things to steal. ethnicity points to membership of a specific ethnic group. This can be defined as the existence of a certain culture or subculture within which a group of people feel themselves to be linked by a shared history, system of values, specific outlook on life and behaviours. They therefore identify themselves completely with the group Ethnocentrism absolutising of a given group's culture, and is the opposite of cultural relativity. Cultural relativity the knowledge that no cultural custom is completely good or completely bad, but that it must always be understood against the background of the culture within which it exists Ethnic cleansing the planned deliberate removal from a specific territory, [of] persons of a particular ethnic group, by force or intimidation, in order to render that area ethnically homogenous Eurocentrism developed to describe the world from a western or more specifically a European mindset. Common characteristics of euro-centrism include the undervaluing of non-Western societies and cultures. The achievements and actions of Africans and Asians were also ignored whether within or outside European society Although ethnocentrism is practically present in all cultures, which one has had the most influence on other cultures? European Which country offers an example of various cultures being thrown together to form a new culture? Australia Who personified black consciousness? Steve Biko Ethnicity plays an important role in violence. Which country contributed to the existing tension between the Hutus and the Tutsis? Belgium homogeneous community and crime the more homogeneous a community is, the closer to its traditional customs and values its legislation or legal rules will be. The individuals will be more willing to obey the laws, because they believe in them. They will control each other informally as part of their ordinary relationships because they acknowledge the utility and the value of the laws and they can see the origins of the laws in their own traditional customs and value system What is the set of laws called which can determine which actions or failure to perform actions is criminal? criminal law When community members know what is expected of them in particular circumstances and what reactions to expect, one can argue that the community is ruled ... informally. Give one reason that all members of a heterogeneous community cannot adhere to the legislative prescriptions. Their traditional practices are not acknowledged. Name the key factor that will create a safe environment and guarantee success in homogeneous communities. strong family ties Low crime figures in Japan indicate how strongly the community identifies with the ............... criminal law.