HDFS 239- exam 3 2023 with verified questions and answers

identity the domain of psychosocial development involving self conceptions, self-esteem, and the sense of who one is identity and fundamental changes 1. physical changes (puberty): physical appearance -- changing self-conceptions and relationships with others 2. cognitive changes- hypothetical and future thinking: can imagine possible selves ("who else can I be?"), develop a future orientation ("who will I become?") 3. social changes: important choices (careers, relationships, etc.) prompts introspection ("what do I really want out of life?" "what things are important to me?") self-conceptions the collection of traits and attributes that individuals use to describe or characterize themselves self-esteem the degree to which individuals feel positively or negatively about themselves sense of identity -the extent to which individuals feel secure about who they are and who they are becoming -a feeling of knowing who one is and where one is headed -sense of purpose -clarity in terms of one's long-term plans and values changes in self-conceptions -become more differentiated and better organized -underestand personality is different in different situations. link attributes to situations vs. global characterizations -adolescents can also differentiate between their own opinions of themselves and others' opinions of them -recognizing multidimensionality in their personality can help people deal with faults, weaknesses. adolescents with more complex self-conceptions -- less likely to be depressed -a more differentiated self-concept enables the adolescent to distinguish between their actual self, ideal self, and feared self -may provide motivation for self improvement. move toward ideal self, away from feared self -adolescents can distinguish between 'true' and 'false' selves -personality: five-factor model -at the individual level, many core personality traits are remarkably stable over time, even though manifestation may differ by age -a common stereotype of adolescence is a time of tumultuous upheaval of personality--not supported by research actual self who the adolescent really is ideal self who the adolescent would like to be feared self who the adolescent most dreads becoming false-self behavior behavior that intentionally presents a false impression to others personality individual's patterns of thinking, feeling, and behaving five factor model 5 critical personality dimensions: 1. extraversion 2. agreeableness 3. conscientiousness 4. neuroticism 5. openness to experience extraversion -I am the life of the party -I don't mind being the center of attention -I feel comfortable around people -I start conversation -I talk a lot to different people at parties agreeableness -I am interested in people -I sympathize with others' feelings -I have a soft heart -I take time out for others -I feel others' emotions -I make people feel at ease conscientiousness -I am always prepared -I pay attention to details -I get chores done right away -I like order -I follow a schedule neuroticism -I am easily disturbed -I change my mood a lot -I get irritated easily -I get stressed out easily -I get upset easily openness to experience -I have a rich vocabulary -I have a vivid imagination -I have excellent ideas -I am quick to understand things -I use difficult words -I spend time reflecting on things -I am full of ideas affects of genetic and environmental factors on self-conceptions -inherit predispositions that may eventually form into personality traits over time, shaped by environment -e.g., social, active child may enjoy interacting with others; may over time become extroverted changes in self-esteem -becomes increasingly stable between childhood and adolescence. less fluctuation in response to different experiences (similar to mood) -"stability" of a trait (like intelligence, self-esteem, etc.) refers to the extent to which individual's relative standing stays about the same over time. self-esteem becomes more stable (less fluctuation) but may still change over time -self-image fluctuations are most likely to occur between ages 12 and 14: have lower self-esteem, are more self-conscious, and more unstable self-image compared to older adolescents and pre-adolescents self-esteem changes in what direction? -some evidence for a decline, some evidence for an increase -different studies have focused on different aspects of an individual's self-image -in general, changes (positive or negative) in self perceptions are greater earlier in adolescence than in middle or late adolescence 3 aspects of self-image 1. self-esteem: how positively or negatively they feel about themselves 2. self-conscousness: how much they worry about their self-image 3. self-image stability: how much they feel that their self-image changes from day to day possible reasons for self-image fluctuation during early adolescence -egocentrism heightens awareness of others' reactions to own behavior -increased awareness of other's ambiguity -contradictory messages heard from parents and peers components of self-esteem -adolescents evaluate themselves both globally and along multiple-dimensions: academics, athletics, appearance, social relationships, moral conduct -have high self-esteem in one area, low in another -even within these domains, adolescents can have differentiated views of themselves -self-esteem may vary based on different contexts -e.g., academically (I'm good at history, but horrible at math) -**physical self-esteem is most important predictor of overall self-esteem, followed by self-esteem about relationships with peers -but, physical appearance is reported as one of the least important important contributors to how they feel about themselves -less important are self-esteem about academic ability, athletic ability, or moral conduct -girls, on average, have lower self-esteem than boys; physical self-esteem is a more important influence on overall self-esteem among girls than among boys group differences in self-esteem -some adolescents are more susceptible to changes in self-esteem than others -for example, early adolescent girls more vulnerable to disturbances in self-image than any other group -lower self-esteem, higher self-consciousness, less stable self-image than boys -sex differences become smaller over time why sex differences in self esteem? -may be related to just how strongly physical appearance and acceptance by peers determines self-esteem -young girls often feel greater pressure to do well academically and socially -adolescents who worry a lot about being popular are more likely to feel self-conscious and have unstable self-images ethnic differences in self-esteem -black adolescents have higher self-esteem than white adolescents, who have higher self-esteem than hispanics, asian, or native Americans. -why?? because black adolescents have a particularly strong sense of ethnic identity, receive strong support and positive feedback especially from family that enhances self-esteem -the ethnic diversity of the context in which adolescents develop has a substantial impact on self-image -adolescents who attend schools where they are in racial minority may suffer greater self-esteem problems. may feel pressure to "play down" cultural heritage. also true with regard to religion, SES, ethnicity, household composition -adolescents' psychological well-being, including self-esteem, is adversely affected by discrimination and prejudice antecedents and consequences of high self-esteem -across all demographic groups, self-esteem is related to: parental support and approval, peer support and approval, and success in school -when self-esteem derived too much peers -- behavioral problems and poorer school achievement -academic success leads to improvements in how adolescents feel about themselves -high self-esteem enhances adolescents' well-being -low self-esteem may lead to involvement in deviant activity, psychological distress, and depression the adolescent identity crisis: Erik Erikson -individuals move through a series of eight psychosocial crises over the course of their life -human development is socially influenced -changes during adolescence force identity formation. intellectual/emotional resources to do so not available before adolescence -social interactions are key to developing an identity. responding to reactions from significant people in adolescent's life shape and influence one's developing sense of identity -identity development may vary in different cultures and historical eras -ease of 'crisis' resolution depends on social context. increase options for US adolescents may contribute to prolonged identity crisis Erikson's stages of psychosocial development 1. basic trust vs. mistrust 2. autonomy vs. shame and doubt 3. initiative vs. guilt 4. industry vs. inferiority 5. identity vs. role confusion -- adolescence 6. intimacy vs. isolation 7. generatively vs. stagnation 8. ego integrity vs. despair the adolescent identity crisis in contemporary society -complex decisions about job choice, values, lifestyles, commitments to others -Erikson argues for a psychological moratorium: a period when individuals are free from excessive obligations and responsibilities, and can therefore experiment with different roles and personalities -experimentations is important to establishing a coherent sense of identity series of crises -establishing a coherent sense of identity is a process that extends into young adulthood -a series of crises that may concern different aspects or components of the individual's identity; may come up at different points in time -culminates in a series of basic life commitments in various realms: occupational, ideological, social, religious, ethical, and sexual 3 most common problems with resolving identity crises: Erikson 1. identity diffusion: incomplete, incoherent, disjointed sense of self. can vary in degree from (typically) mild to psychopathological (with effects on other psychosocial domains) 2. identity foreclosure: bypass the psychosocial moratorium and prematurely commit to an identity; role of parents 3. negative identity: an undesirable identity formation; forge identity in difficult environment research on identity development -determining an adolescent's identity status -identity status: the point in the process of identity development that characterizes an adolescent -to determine an individual's identity status, many researchers use an approach developed by James Marcia -there may be 2 processes underlying identity formation: explore various identities before making a commitment and explore commitments in depth after making them; reevaluation -identity as a process consisting of alternating exploration and commitment identity development: James Marcia -according to him, an individual's identity status can be assessed on two dimensions: 1. the degree to which he/she has made a commitment 2. the degree to which he/she has engaged in a sustained search, or exploration identity achievement -present commitment -present exploration -established a coherent sense of identity moratorium -absent commitment -present exploration -individual is in the midst of a period of crisis and experimentation identity foreclosure -present commitment -absent exploration -individual has made commitments but without a period of crisis and experimentation identity diffusion -absent commitment -absent exploration -individual has not made commitments nor experienced a period of crisis and/or experimentation ways of resolving the identity crisis -different individuals approach the resolution of the identity crisis in different ways: -"informational" orientation: explore and gather information -"normative" orientation: conform; make decisions quickly -diffuse/avoidant orientation: avoid -one defining characteristic of individuals who have achieved a coherent sense of identity- have a sense of agency when making decisions -late teens, early 20s- "are you an adult or adolescent?" -if "not sure", then less likely to have reached identity achievement identity development over time -research suggests that a coherent sense of identity generally not established before age 18 -late teens to early 20s- critical times for solidifying a sense of identity shifts in identity status -observation: adolescents and young adults tend to move from one identity status to another -the factors associated with changing from one identity status to another are not well understood: internal factors (e.g., discontent with one's life), life changes (e.g., transition out of high school) ethnic identity the aspect of individual's sense of identity concerning ancestry or racial group membership development of ethnic identity -in US, ethnic identity seems to be weakest in white youth compared to other groups -may strongly identify with a particular ethnic group (German, Irish, Italian, Jewish) -but less likely to choose labels to identify themselves based on their specific heritage -use 'generic' labels like "white" or simply "American" -individuals with strong vs. diffuse sense of ethnic identity have better mental health -the process of ethnic identity development may be helped by parents who take a more deliberate approach to racial or ethnic socialization -establishing this may be especially important for individuals who are part of an ethnic minority vs. majority -among minority youth, having a strong ethnic identity consistently found to be associated with: higher self-esteem, stronger self-efficacy, better mental health -orientation toward mainstream culture also important in terms of the mental health of minority youth -savvy biculturalism development of ethnic identity generally parallels development of identity 1. stable view of oneself is displaced or upset by crises -some precipitating event leads to 'crisis' 2. individuals engage in a period of exploration -try to learn more about their own ethnic heritage (often online) -middle adolescence -exploration -- increased self-esteem 3. eventually the value of having strong ethnic identity becomes clearer and the individual establishes a more stable, coherent sense of who they are -middle to late adolescence savvy biculturalism having a strong positive ethnic identity and a healthy awareness of the potential for discrimination, but not with outright rejection of the mainstream culture racial socialization -the process in which parents teach their children about their ethnic identity and about experiences they may encounter within society as a result of their ethnic background -focuses on 3 themes: 1. understanding and valuing one's own culture 2. dealing with racism 3. succeeding in mainstream society discrimination and its effects -individuals from any group who report experiencing discrimination suffer psychologically -feeling discriminated against may lead to conduct problems, depression, lower achievement in school -an important process underlying these effects may be a feeling of loss of control -loss of control over academic achievement -- feelings of depression -ethnic identity may be an important factor underlying individual variation in the extent to which they feel discriminated against the extent to which they are adversely affected by it multidimensional model of racial identity (Sellers) -this model attempts to understand racial identity and the impact of discrimination by examining three components: 1. racial centrality- how important race is in defining your overall identity 2. private regard- how you feel about being a member of your race 3. public regard- how you think others view your race affects of the multidimensional model on adolescent mental health -positive feelings about one's race is positively linked to psychological well-being and protects against stress and discrimination -having race as a central part of one's identity makes individuals more sensitive to discrimination (negative), but also better able to cope with it (positive) -believing that the public has a positive view of one's race can intensify the negative effects of discrimination discrimination and its effects: Chavous et al. -study examined how racial centrality, private regard, and public regard work together to influence black adolescents' school achievement and motivation -4 distinct clusters of students were identified: 1. buffering/defensive (high centrality, high private regard, low public regard) 2. low connectedness/high affinity (low centrality, high private regard, low public regard) 3. idealized (high on all 3 dimensions) 4. alienated (low on all 3 dimensions) alienated most disengaged and top drop out of school idealized more positive belief about school buffered least likely to drop out and be in college two years after graduation -strong group pride and realistic expectation of facing discrimination multiethnic adolescents -one understudied group of adolescents for whom developing a sense of identity may be especially challenging are biracial youth -1970s: 1/100 children were bi or multiracial -today: 1/20 children born in US are biracial -research suggests 2 facts that biracial adolescents may use to identify themselves: physical appearance, ethnic background of friends gender-role development -boys and girls, from birth, are socialized to behave in "sex-appropriate" ways -strong gender stereotypes in US society: -traits such as logic, independence, ambitions, and aggressiveness are stereotypically considered masculine -traits such as gentleness, sociability, empathy, and tenderness are stereotypically considered feminine -androgyny- the combination of both highly masculine and feminine traits -pressure to behave in 'sex-appropriate' ways may temporarily increase during middle adolescence: the gender intensification hypothesis -in general, among both males and females, many traits traditionally labeled as masculine are associated with better adjustment and greater peer acceptance during adolescence (but not during childhood or young adulthood) -as a result, androgynous females and masculine males report higher levels of self-esteem than their peers gender intensification hypothesis -many of the sex differences observed result from boys and girls being socialized to act in stereotypically masculine or feminine ways -the impact of environmental factors on gender-role behavior is much stronger than the impact of the hormonal changes of puberty -findings on this theory are mixed, with some studies showing differences predate puberty, and others showing differences are context specific self concept: neurodevelopment -Sebastian, Burnett, and Blakmore -changing concept of self during adolescence -differentiated; heightened self-consciousness -"looking glass self"- how we are seen by others -continued neuroanatomical development in brain regions involved in self-processing in adults -review of studies: reflect on whether statements reflect self vs. another person. own intentions (vs. physical causality) -major finding: adolescents engage different pattern of regions- more medial prefrontal cortex (MPFC) in adolescents. Posterior temporal regions in adults independence an individual's capacity to behave on his or her own autonomy -behavioral, emotional, cognitive -lifespan issue behavioral autonomy ACTING independently; making independent decisions and following through on them emotional autonomy FEELING independent; gaining emotional independence in relationships with others, especially parents cognitive/value autonomy THINKING independently; developing an independent set of beliefs and principles, resisting peer and parental pressures autonomy and fundamental changes: biological changes/puberty -pubertal changes (interest in dating, romantic partners) may drive adolescents away from family, seek closer relationships with peers -physical maturation: look more mature -- treated differently by adults, more responsibility autonomy and fundamental changes: cognitive changes -independent decision making -increased sophistication in adolescent thinking abilities -enable adolescent to weigh opinions and suggestions of others more effectively and to reach his or her own decision -can better understand consequences of choices -cognitive changes also lay foundation for social, moral, and ethical decision making -establish a value system autonomy and fundamental changes: changes in social roles and activities -adolescents take on new roles that demand increasing self-reliance and responsibility; stimulate independent decision making -ability to drive, legal option to discontinue schooling, voting rights emotional autonomy development -parent/child relationships change across time -adolescents become less emotionally dependent on their parents -seek others (peers) for support/guidance -view parents as people, not 'all-knowing' -greater sense of attachment to others (esp. romantic partner) psychoanalytic theory: Anna Freud -emotional autonomy and detachment -physical changes of puberty disrupt family system -resurgence of sexual impulses increase family tensions (intrapsychic conflicts) -increased tensions drive detachment: adolescents are driven to separate emotionally from parents, toward (opposite sex) peers. conflict viewed as a normal part of detachment in adolescence -research does not support!! -nearly all studies show that teens' relation with their parents are quite good during the adolescent years. bickering occurs, but does not diminish closeness -emotional autonomy- not a 'breaking off' of family relationships but rather a transformation. emotional autonomy can occur without becoming detached from parents individuation -healthy emotional autonomy most likely to be achieved through a gradual transformational -the progressive sharpening of an individual's sense of being an autonomous, independent person -begins during infancy, continues into late adolescence -does not involve stress or turmoil -acceptance of responsibility for his/her own choices and actions over time -"relinquishing child-like dependencies on parents in favor of a more mature, more responsible, and less dependent relationship" -involves changes in how we come to see and feel about ourselves- part of identity formation research on emotional autonomy -studies indicate that emotional autonomy is a lengthy process that begins in early adolescence and continues well into young adulthood -Steinberg and Silverberg: -865 adolescents, 10-15 year olds -measured emotional autonomy by examining extent to which: teens de-idealize parents, teens see parents as people, adolescents depend on themselves vs. parents, adolescents feel individuated within the relationship with his/her parents -one of the first aspects of emotional autonomy to develop is the de-idealization of one's parents (middle adolescence) -the ability to see one's parents as individuals (beyond the role of parent) does not develop until much later, perhaps not until young adulthood importance of maintaining the connection -separating from one's parents in a way that maintains emotional closeness is important for psychological health -adolescents who are separated from parents but also feel distant/detached from parents= psychologically maladjusted (increase alcohol use, lying to parents) -adolescents who become emotionally autonomous but still feel close to parents= psychologically healthier, better adjusted emotional autonomy and parenting -healthy individuation and positive mental health are associated with close, not distant, family relationships -strained relationships with parents is associated with a lack of autonomy during adolescence -adolescents with parents who are too close (intrusive, overprotective) or who use psychological control may have difficulty individuating from them -can lead to depression, anxiety, diminished social competence enabling parents -better outcomes for their adolescents -accept their adolescent while also helping them develop and state their own ideas by use of questions, explanations, and tolerance of differing views constraining parents -worse outcomes for their adolescents -have a hard time accepting individuality of their adolescent, react to independence with remarks that are distracting, judgmental, or devaluing emotional autonomy and authoritative parenting -adolescents develop a healthier sense of autonomy vs. other parenting styles -guidelines/standards for behavior are flexible and well-explained, can be adjusted as the child matures -gradual changes that encourage more independence and responsibility, while maintaining emotional bonds with parents, promote increasing emotional autonomy emotional autonomy and authoritarian parenting -this parenting style is harder to adjust during adolescence and interferes with individuation -in cases of excessive parental control, adolescents may rebel to assert independence -maintain dependencies established in childhood, little practice in decision making and being responsible for actions -not indicative of genuine emotional autonomy, rather frustration and a lack of understanding emotional autonomy and indulgent and indifferent parenting -insufficient guidelines lead to a lack of adequate behavioral standards -turn to peers for guidance, who themselves are young and inexperienced -psychologically dependent on friends -also not genuinely autonomous behavioral autonomy development -refers to the capacity for independent decision making -- to act (behave) independently -researchers have looked at changes in: 1. decision-making abilities 2. susceptibility to the influence of others (e.g., peer influence) 3. feelings of self-reliance behavioral autonomy: changes in decision-making abilities -the cognitive changes during adolescence result in improved decision-making stills and, consequently, in the individual's greater ability to behave independently -improvements in decision-making abilities -adolescents can better consider risks and benefits of decisions and weigh long-term consequences of choices -these cognitive improvements appear to be due to two developments: 1. over the course of adolescence, individuals become less likely to favor decisions that emphasize short-term (immediate) over long-term reward. 2. adolescents improve in their ability to control their impulses. prefrontal regions still maturing during adolescence; inhibitory control/self-regulation improve with time. allows individuals to think ahead, make decisions that are not 'hasty' or influenced by emotions behavioral autonomy (decision making): maps on brain imaging -reward influence on decision making seems to wane somewhat with age: -early adolescence= greater influence of rewards -late adolescence/young adulthood= rewards and costs are more balanced (adult-like) -Galvan et al -heightened brain responses in ventral striatum and more "diffuse" OFC activation in early to mid-adolescence vs. adulthood -early and middle adolescents also show heightened responses in brain areas underlying reward processing -ventral striatum (a key reward area): adolescents adults during reward anticipation legal decision making -are adolescents' decision-making abilities mature enough to warrant adult-like legal culpability? -adolescents may reason in ways that are comparable to adults, but continued maturation in brain regions supporting such processes as impulse control, future planning, etc., (e.g., prefrontal cortex) suggest that holding teens to adult standards may not be appropriate in all circumstances when do adolescents exhibit adult-like decision making? -boundary hard to define- 'mature' decision making rests on multiple components, each with slightly different developmental trajectories -logical reasoning (~16 years): health care services (e.g., abortion, contraceptives) -impulse control, planning ahead (continues into early adulthood): used in criminal cases against juvenile offenders behavioral autonomy: changes in susceptibility to influence -as more time is spent outside the family, the opinions of others become more important (peers, other adults, teachers) -who do adolescents listen to? A: it depends on the situation. adolescents are more likely to conform to their peers' opinions when it comes to short-term day-to-day and social matters (e.g., styles of dress, taste in music, choices among leisure activities). They listen to parents more when it comes to educational, occupational, religious, and ethical decisions responding to peer pressure -most studies show that susceptibility to peer pressure increases from preadolescence to early adolescence, and then begins to decline as adolescents enter high school -peak around age 14 -often revolves around antisocial behavior -studies have shown that peer pressure increases steadily throughout adolescence why might adolescents have increased susceptibility? -heightened sensitivity to peer group; care more about 'going along with the crowd' to avoid rejection -heightened conformity may represent a midway point between emotional autonomy from parents and full, genuine autonomy-- friends temporarily fill the void individual differences in susceptibility to peer influence: gender and ethnicity -within a normative sample of adolescents, degree of behavioral autonomy varies -in general: -boys more susceptible than girls -black adolescents low susceptibility, asian adolescents high susceptibility -standing up to peers- associated with better control over impulsive, emotional decision making, self-regulation individual differences in susceptibility to peer influence: parenting styles -adolescents whose parents are authoritarian or permissive are most easily influenced by peers, especially in antisocial situations -adolescents from authoritative homes are less susceptible to antisocial peer pressure, but more so to positive peers -how parents and adolescents negotiate changes in behavioral autonomy have implications for adolescent adjustment: -less positive relationships with parents -- more peer oriented, especially negative peers in unsupervised locations; heightens risk for problem behavior -balance between asserting control and granting autonomy is important. too little or too much in either direction can push adolescent to be more peer oriented -authoritarian parents -- most peer oriented adolescents behavioral autonomy: changes in the feelings of self-reliance -self-reliance: adolescents' subjective feelings/judgements of how autonomous they are -increase steadily with age -are higher in girls vs. boys -girls are also better able to resist peer pressure -adolescents who have a stronger sense of self-reliance report higher self-esteem and fewer behavior problems cognitive autonomy development -changes occur in the adolescent's beliefs, opinions, and values (moral, political, and religious issues) -3 trends: 1. increasingly abstract thinking related to moral, political. and religious issues 2. beliefs become increasingly rooted in general principles 3. beliefs align with individual's own values (not others) -linked to fundamental cognitive changes of adolescence: enhanced reasoning capabilities, hypothetical thinking, consider alternate possibilities moral reasoning how individuals think about moral dilemmas moral behavior how individuals act in situations requiring moral judgements Kohlberg's level of moral reasoning -preconventoinal moral reasoning: worrying about punishment/reward. typical of children -conventional moral reasoning: following societal rules and norms. typical of late childhood and early adolescence -postconventional moral reasoning: most abstracted advanced research on cognitive autonomy -research has shown that moral behavioral does not always math moral reasoning -contextual factors influence how a person acts when facing moral dilemmas in the real world -if a person feels like they might be hurt -personal choice vs. moral dilemma (e.g., drug use) -delinquency, aggression more common among adolescents with high moral disengagement (the tendency to rationalize immoral behavior as legitimate) cognitive autonomy: prosocial reasoning, behavior, volunteerism -prosocial behavior (helping others) -prosocial reasoning becomes more sophisticated. but changes in actual prosocial behavior, such as helping others or empathizing with others, are not consistently found in adolescence -involvement in community service leads to gains in social responsibility, gains in tolerance cognitive autonomy: political thinking -becomes more abstract -becomes less authoritarian and less rigid -becomes more principled (as increase in consistent set of attitudes; an ideology) cognitive autonomy: religious beliefs -becomes more abstract, more principled, and more independent during adolescent years -the stated importance of religion-and participation in an organized religion- declines somewhat during the adolescent years intimacy -the psychosocial domain concerning the formation, maintenance, and termination of close relationships -characterized by openness, honesty, self-disclosure, and trust -not necessarily sexual or physical in nature, but can be -lifespan issue, but especially important in adolescence because not until adolescence do truly intimate relationships emerge fundamental changes in intimacy: biological changes (puberty) -interest in sexual relationships (often intimate) -issues centered around puberty- evoke intimate discussion (friends) fundamental changes in intimacy: cognitive changes -increased social cognition: empathy, self-disclosure, honesty, reciprocity, perspective taking fundamental changes in intimacy: social roles -more opportunities to be alone with peers and engage in intimate discussion -parents may confide in their adolescent more due to shared experiences Sullivan's Theory of Interpersonal Development -emphasized the social aspects of growth -psychological development can be best understood in interpersonal terms -theory focuses on transformations in relationships with others. challenge of adolescence (and other stages) is to resolve changing interpersonal needs -interpersonal needs surface throughout development: when needs are satisfied - feelings of security; when needs are not satisfied - feelings of anxiety -Sullivan: security derived from having satisfying relationships with others is critical to one's identity and self-esteem Sullivan's developmental progression 1-infancy (0 to 2-3 yrs): need for contact and tenderness 2-early childhood (2-3 to 6-7 yrs): need for adult participation in child's play 3-middle childhood (6-7 to 8-10 yrs): need for peers and peer acceptance 4-preadolescence (8-10 to 12-14 yrs): need for intimacy and joint validation in non-romantic relationships 5-early adolescence (12-14 to 17-18 yrs): need for sexual contact and intimacy in romantic relationships 6-late adolescence (17-18 to adult): need for integration into adult society preadolescence 8-10 to 12-14 years old -need for intimacy emerges and is often satisfied through same-sex (non-romantic) friendships and close, platonic (nonsexual) relationships early adolescence 12-14 to 17-18 years old -need for intimacy integrated with sexual impulses; focus of interpersonal concerns redirected toward romantic partners late adolescence 17-18 to adult -the need for integration into adult society emerges- similar to identity crisis (Erikson) interpersonal development during adolescence -important contribution of Sullivan: the quality of non-romantic relationships predicts quality of later romantic relationships -the critical interpersonal challenge of adolescence - integrate need for intimacy with emerging need for romantic relationships, in a way that does not lead to excessive anxiety -Sullivan: adolescence is a time of experimentation with different types of interpersonal relationships, normal way of dealing with issues (similar to Erikson) attachment theory -second major theoretical perspective on the development of intimate relationships in adolescence (more current) attachment -a strong, enduring emotional bond that develops between an infant and a caregiver (e.g., mom and/or dad) -used first to understand development in infancy, extended to understand adolescence attachment in infancy -nearly all infants form attachment, but can vary in quality across individuals -3 infant attachment levels: 1. secure- characterized by trust 2. anxious-avoidant- characterized by indifference on part of infant toward caregiver 3. anxious-resistant- characterized by distress when separated, then anger upon return infant attachment predicts intimacy in adolescence 1. initial attachment shapes an "internal working model" of relationships develops during childhood -do we feel trusting or apprehensive in relationships with others? -do we see ourselves as worthy of others' affection? -working model provide a set of expectations we draw from when forming close (intimate) relationships 2. cumulative nature of interpersonal development -infancy affects early childhood, which affects middle childhood, and so on -different levels of attachment early on in life may lead to different interpersonal trajectories -longitudinal studies: insecure infants more likely to have psychological and social problems during adolescence (including peer relation problems) -healthy intimate bonds with peers during adolescence also shown to be associated with psychological health, increased satisfaction with lives in middle adulthood rejection sensitivity some evidence that individuals with insecure attachment are more sensitive to being rejected by others in romantic relationships attachment in adolescence -some studies look at a) current parental and peer relationships, b) others at early experiences in childhood using the adult attachment interview -adult attachment interview: a structured interview used to assess an individual's past attachment history and "internal working model" of relationships -characterize individuals as: secure, dismissing, preoccupied -attachment security is generally stable over the adolescent years, but it can change if adolescents are living in dysfunctional family situations or under high amounts of stress -early attachment does not shield individuals from psychological problems -rather, a psychological advantage that increases the probability of developing in healthy ways -an adolescent's attachment style interacts with other experiences to shape mental health and behavior -for secure: positive experiences are more positive, negative not as negative secure adolescents -interact with mothers with appropriate assertiveness, less unhealthy anger, may reflect fewer difficulties with development of emotional autonomy -more stable romantic relationships -more socially competent -achieve more in school dismissive or preoccupied adolescents -emotional, behavior problems in adolescence -depression, anxiety, eating disorders, delinquency attachment in adolescence and parenting -adolescents with secure attachments are more likely to come from homes with authoritative parents -insecurely attached adolescents- home where parents are neglectful development of intimacy in adolescence 1. changes in the nature of friendship 2. changes in how intimacy is displayed 3. intimacy differences among males and females 4. changes in the targets of intimacy 5. friendships with the other sex changes in the definitions of friendship -companionship appears before adolescence -the nature of friendships changes during adolescence -early adolescence: self-disclosure, trust, loyalty, responsiveness emerge as dimensions of friendship -about 14, anxieties over loyalty and rejection can be high (esp. for girls) -relatedly, the types of conflicts with friends also change: older adolescent- centered around private matters younger adolescent- centered around perceived public disrespect -jealousy: girls can show increased jealousy over their friends' friends during early adolescence. insecure about transition to romantic relationships; place more emphasis on friend's loyalty changes in the display of intimacy -more likely to display intimacy in their relationships -adolescents: -gain knowledge about more intimate aspects of their friends' lives -become increasingly sensitive to the feelings and needs of their friends; "in-tune" -provide more comfort to their friends when their friends are having problems -less controlling and more tolerant of their friends' individuality -adolescents also change the way they resolve conflicts -with close friends, conflict is less common but more emotional; seek to restore -adolescents are more likely to negotiate, and less likely to end in a negative way (coercion) sex differences in intimacy -notable sex differences -girls: -list more friends as being important to them -mention intimacy as defining aspect of close friendships -express greater concern over friend's loyalty and rejection -emphasize closeness in evaluating romantic partners -tend to be more sensitive and empathetic when comforting friends -expression of intimacy more advanced in adolescent girls vs. adolescent boys -disadvantages for girls: -more likely to co-ruminate-spend excessive time discussing each other's problems. increase closeness, but also contribute to depression, anxiety -among boys, co-rumination improved friendships but does NOT increase depression or anxiety -the nature of conflicts between close friends: -girls: conflicts last longer, often center around betrayal, only resolved when one apologizes -boys: conflicts shorter, center around issues of power, control, more likely to escalate into physical aggression, usually resolved without explicit effort -overall, intimacy may be a more conscious concern for girls, but not absent in boys -boys may express intimacy in different ways. more in shared activities vs. self-disclosure -boys may develop close friends later -sex differences in friendship qualities largely gone by 18 years similarities in sexes in intimacy -both have equivalent degrees of intimate knowledge about their best friends -when boys are with their friends, they are just as likely as girls to share each other's emotional state -while girls are generally more sensitive and empathetic to friends, sex differences in helpfulness are very small changes in the targets of intimacy -Sullivan hypothesized: intimacy with (nonromantic) peers replaced intimacy with parents. intimacy with romantic partners replaced intimacy with nonromantic peers -however, research shows that new targets of intimacy are added to old ones. broaden circle of confidantes -peers' importance increases, but parents don't become unimportant. list of important people-peers increase, parents remain -adolescents who spend a lot of time with parents also spend a lot of time with friends -qualities of these relationships are closely linked. supports view that a template formed early used for close relationships with others later -changes in the targets of intimacy differs in other cultures: -parents peers for social support in Indonesia -Japanese adolescents less likely than American adolescents to list parents and more likely to list peers -within the US, however, reports on relations between adolescents and parents are quite similar across ethnic groups -relationships with parents: in general,. relationships with mothers and fathers differ. they argue more, but adolescents are closer to and interact with their mother more than their father, esp. true for girls changes in the targets of intimacy: parents and peers -for adolescents, parent vs. peer intimate relationships are different: -parent-adolecnce: imbalance of power, teens receive advice. advice givers and explainers -adolescent-peer: mutual, balanced, equal exchanges -one not 'more intimate' than the other- both types of intimate relationships are important -each influence a different aspect of the adolescent's developing character in important ways: -parents- learn from wiser and more experienced -peers- share experiences with someone with a similar perspective friendships with the other sex -intimate friendships with opposite-sex peers develop relatively late in adolescence -start out with different interests and activities, and perceive themselves to be different from each other -transition to mixed-sex friendships can be trying and uncomfortable. semi-sextual behavior: teasing, joking around, etc. -contrary to Sullivan's views, same sex relationships continue to develop along with opposite sex relationships -although intimacy between sexes increases during adolescence, many adolescents don't list any opposite-sex peer as a significant person in their lives -middle school: only 8-13% of friendships with opposite sex -sex differences when adolescents do include opposite-sex peers on their list of important people: females: the boys they mention are often older and from another school males: when girls are listed as important friends, they generally are of the same age or younger friendships with the other sex: functions of other-sex friendships -opposite sex friendships may set the stage for later romantic experiences -adolescents with more opposite-sex friends than their peers early in adolescence tend to enter into romantic relationships at an earlier age -also have longer romantic relationships -boys tend to gain more psychologically from their relationships with girls than do girls with boys