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TALCOTT PARSONS (1902-1979)
BASIC PROFILE
Born in 1902 in Colorado (USA) in a Protestant family.
Schooling from Amherst College, Massachusetts. BIOLOGY was his 1st love.
Got interested in INSTITUTIONALISED ECONOMY- i.e. Interface b/w Economic Activities and larger Social milieu.
American Sociology dominated by CHICAGO SCHOOL that was overshadowed by Over Empiricism.
1924 – went to London School of Economics to pursue his Masters in Economics influenced by works of Karl Marx, Emile
Durkheim, Max Weber, AR Radcliffe Brown, Malinowsky, neo Classical Economist Alfred Marshal, Harold Laski, Hobhouse
were his teachers.
He won scholarship in the University of Hindenburg in Germany, where Max Weber taught.
In 1927 returned to America and was appointed as an instructor at Amherst College.
He translated WEBER’S ‘Comparative study of theories of rise of Capitalism in German literature’ into English.
In 1929 he got his Doctoral Degree, and got a job at the Harvard University.
Retired from Harvard University in 1973 and died in 1979 in Germany.
He is credited with developing THEORETICAL ORIENTATION OF AMERICAN SOCIOLOGY.
Parson’s Basic aim was to build a COMPREHENSIVE and a GRAND THEORY OF SOCIOLOGY.
He was a theorist and wanted to build an ECOLOGY OF SOCIOLOGY.
American School of Sociology of his days was dominated by Chicago school.
He was disillusioned with the Chicago School due to their preoccupation with over empiricism and ignorance of Theory Building.
He found the Chicago School Sterile.
He got lectureship at Harvard University, got 1st major work ‘STRUCTURE OF SOCIAL ACTION’ published in 1939.
Parsons study is divided into 3 Phases:
a) PHASE– I : STRUCTURE OF SOCIAL ACTION (1939)
b) PHASE – II : STRUCTURE FUNCTIONAL ANALYSIS OF SOCIAL SYSTEM
c) PHASE – III : SOCIAL CHANGE AS AN E VOLUTIONARY PROCESS
During Phase II his 2 major works were published in 1951:
a) TOWARDS A GENERAL THEORY OF SOCIAL ACTION.
b) THE SOCIAL SYSTEM.
During Phase III his 3 major works were published in 1966:
a) ECONOMY AND SOCIETY –with NJ Smelser- Translation of WEBER’S Wertschaft & Gesselschaft.
b) SOCIETY- EVOLUTIONARY AND COMPARATIVE PERSPECTIVES. In both the books he developed his Theory of Social
Change.
c) SYSTEM OF MODERN SOCIETIES (2nd Volume of Book b).
HOW HE BUILT UP A COMPREHENSIVE THEORY OF SOCIOLOGY
He rejected the Chicago School for indulging into Over Empiricism and thus ignoring the theoretical Framework in Sociology.
Disillusioned, he left for LONDON SCHOOL OF ECONOMICS where he surveyed 3 major Trends:
1) UTILITARIANS – Also known as NEO CLASSICAL ECONOMISTS. Parsons appreciated them for Theory Building but criticized
them for being Reductionist and Oversimplified in their approach. They saw Economic Behaviour as totally guided by
Economic Rationality and did not see any role of Sociological Factors. They ignored the Social Context of Economic
Behaviour. They give no importance to Ideas, beliefs, Norms, Values in shaping Individual behaviour. According to
Parsons Economic Behaviour should be understood in context of larger social milieu and not by economic rationality
alone. Hence Economic Theory of Utilitarians cannot be taken as the basis of Development of Sociological theory.
2) POSITIVISTS – Parsons appreciated them for making Generalised theory but criticized for ignoring Subjective Aspect of
behaviour.
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3) IDEALISTS – The neo Kantians or the Anti Positivists like Dithey, Ricardt, Windelbaund. They argue that Geist (Spirit)
attributes MEANINGS to things. Acc to them Human Behaviour is guided by Meanings that Actors ascribe to a Situation.
They take INDIVIDUAL VOLITIONAL ASPECT into account, for which Parsons appreciated them. But according to them
meanings vary from individual to individual and hence NO GENERALISATIONS can be made. Parsons criticized them for
their failure for making Generalisations and Theory Building.
According to Parsons these 3 traditions look at reality partially and not in totality and do not give a comprehensive view.
(+VE) APPRECIATED FOR (-VE) REJECTED FOR
1) UTILITARIANS Theory Building, Application of- Oversimplified, Reductionist
(Neo Classical Eco.) Quantitative Methods Ignore Social Context of
Economic Behaviour
Individual Volitional Aspect
2) POSITIVISTS Theory Building, Generalisations Ignores Volitional Aspect
3) IDEALISTS Account for Volitional Aspect Ignore Generalizations &
Individual Meanings & Motives Theory Building
Arriving at synthesis of these approaches Parsons formulated Guiding Principles for Comprehensive theory building:
1) It should be a REALISTIC & HOLISTIC Theory- Human behaviour should be seen in totality and Society should be viewed as
a System. (synthesis from Utilitarians).
2) Sociological theory must be a VOLUNTARISTIC Theory of Action taking into account the meanings and motives of the actors
involved in the Social Action. (synthesis from Positivists).
3) It should be a GENERAL Theory looking at human behaviour in a Patterned form. (synthesis from Idealists).
BASIC PREMISE
SOCIAL ACTION Basic Unit of Social Life. Human behaviour is to be seen as a Social Action.
Social Action meaningful response of the actor towards the other stimuli and is oriented towards some Goals.
External EnvironmentStimuli Interpreted in terms of Meanings Goal Directed Behaviour
Meanings to the situation are given by the Actor, and the actor is a being in a Situation (Indiv/group/society).
Behaviour Mechanistic Response; Action Meaningful Response.
Actor Conscious Agency that ascribes meaning to a situation.
Situation is whatever is meaningfully oriented in the Actor’s consciousness.
Situation Conditions – Cannot be controlled by the Actor.
Means – Can be controlled manipulated and changed by the Actor.
CONDITIONS are Constraining and MEANS provide Choices.
Goals are the objectives to be achieved outside the situation. i. e. GOALS LIE OUTSIDE THE SITUATION.
Pre requisites of Social Action 1. Stimuli, 2. Actor, 3. Situation
SOCIAL SITUATIONS consist of a) PHYSICAL OBJECTS – Non living things.
b) SOCIAL OBJECTS – other actors, related to in a certain way
c) CULTURAL OBJECTS – values, norms, beliefs, symbols.
CULTURAL OBJECTS ascribe meanings to Physical and Social objects. (Values are the Ultimate source of all Cultures).
Through CULTURE the situation is interpreted and some meaning is attached to it.
Action has to be viewed from the viewpoint of the Actor. Every Action is a GOAL DIRECTED ACTION.
Meanings Defined and Shaped by Culture Patterned Ways of Culture to be viewed from the viewpoint of the Actor.
Action and Social Reality, in order to be understood in a comprehensive way, should be viewed as a SYSTEM.
SYSTEM is a METHODOLOGICAL and an ANALYTICAL TOOL, a way of looking things to understand Social Action.
Even a Single Social Action can be seen as a System.
Characteristics of a System
1. System is a UNIFIED WHOLE made up of INTERDEPENDENT PARTS known as SUB SYSTEMS. Sub systems have the
ATTRIBUTES of the system.
TALCOTT PARSONS (1902-1979)
BASIC PROFILE
Born in 1902 in Colorado (USA) in a Protestant family.
Schooling from Amherst College, Massachusetts. BIOLOGY was his 1st love.
Got interested in INSTITUTIONALISED ECONOMY- i.e. Interface b/w Economic Activities and larger Social milieu.
American Sociology dominated by CHICAGO SCHOOL that was overshadowed by Over Empiricism.
1924 – went to London School of Economics to pursue his Masters in Economics influenced by works of Karl Marx, Emile
Durkheim, Max Weber, AR Radcliffe Brown, Malinowsky, neo Classical Economist Alfred Marshal, Harold Laski, Hobhouse
were his teachers.
He won scholarship in the University of Hindenburg in Germany, where Max Weber taught.
In 1927 returned to America and was appointed as an instructor at Amherst College.
He translated WEBER’S ‘Comparative study of theories of rise of Capitalism in German literature’ into English.
In 1929 he got his Doctoral Degree, and got a job at the Harvard University.
Retired from Harvard University in 1973 and died in 1979 in Germany.
He is credited with developing THEORETICAL ORIENTATION OF AMERICAN SOCIOLOGY.
Parson’s Basic aim was to build a COMPREHENSIVE and a GRAND THEORY OF SOCIOLOGY.
He was a theorist and wanted to build an ECOLOGY OF SOCIOLOGY.
American School of Sociology of his days was dominated by Chicago school.
He was disillusioned with the Chicago School due to their preoccupation with over empiricism and ignorance of Theory Building.
He found the Chicago School Sterile.
He got lectureship at Harvard University, got 1st major work ‘STRUCTURE OF SOCIAL ACTION’ published in 1939.
Parsons study is divided into 3 Phases:
a) PHASE– I : STRUCTURE OF SOCIAL ACTION (1939)
b) PHASE – II : STRUCTURE FUNCTIONAL ANALYSIS OF SOCIAL SYSTEM
c) PHASE – III : SOCIAL CHANGE AS AN E VOLUTIONARY PROCESS
During Phase II his 2 major works were published in 1951:
a) TOWARDS A GENERAL THEORY OF SOCIAL ACTION.
b) THE SOCIAL SYSTEM.
During Phase III his 3 major works were published in 1966:
a) ECONOMY AND SOCIETY –with NJ Smelser- Translation of WEBER’S Wertschaft & Gesselschaft.
b) SOCIETY- EVOLUTIONARY AND COMPARATIVE PERSPECTIVES. In both the books he developed his Theory of Social
Change.
c) SYSTEM OF MODERN SOCIETIES (2nd Volume of Book b).
HOW HE BUILT UP A COMPREHENSIVE THEORY OF SOCIOLOGY
He rejected the Chicago School for indulging into Over Empiricism and thus ignoring the theoretical Framework in Sociology.
Disillusioned, he left for LONDON SCHOOL OF ECONOMICS where he surveyed 3 major Trends:
1) UTILITARIANS – Also known as NEO CLASSICAL ECONOMISTS. Parsons appreciated them for Theory Building but criticized
them for being Reductionist and Oversimplified in their approach. They saw Economic Behaviour as totally guided by
Economic Rationality and did not see any role of Sociological Factors. They ignored the Social Context of Economic
Behaviour. They give no importance to Ideas, beliefs, Norms, Values in shaping Individual behaviour. According to
Parsons Economic Behaviour should be understood in context of larger social milieu and not by economic rationality
alone. Hence Economic Theory of Utilitarians cannot be taken as the basis of Development of Sociological theory.
2) POSITIVISTS – Parsons appreciated them for making Generalised theory but criticized for ignoring Subjective Aspect of
behaviour.
, 2
3) IDEALISTS – The neo Kantians or the Anti Positivists like Dithey, Ricardt, Windelbaund. They argue that Geist (Spirit)
attributes MEANINGS to things. Acc to them Human Behaviour is guided by Meanings that Actors ascribe to a Situation.
They take INDIVIDUAL VOLITIONAL ASPECT into account, for which Parsons appreciated them. But according to them
meanings vary from individual to individual and hence NO GENERALISATIONS can be made. Parsons criticized them for
their failure for making Generalisations and Theory Building.
According to Parsons these 3 traditions look at reality partially and not in totality and do not give a comprehensive view.
(+VE) APPRECIATED FOR (-VE) REJECTED FOR
1) UTILITARIANS Theory Building, Application of- Oversimplified, Reductionist
(Neo Classical Eco.) Quantitative Methods Ignore Social Context of
Economic Behaviour
Individual Volitional Aspect
2) POSITIVISTS Theory Building, Generalisations Ignores Volitional Aspect
3) IDEALISTS Account for Volitional Aspect Ignore Generalizations &
Individual Meanings & Motives Theory Building
Arriving at synthesis of these approaches Parsons formulated Guiding Principles for Comprehensive theory building:
1) It should be a REALISTIC & HOLISTIC Theory- Human behaviour should be seen in totality and Society should be viewed as
a System. (synthesis from Utilitarians).
2) Sociological theory must be a VOLUNTARISTIC Theory of Action taking into account the meanings and motives of the actors
involved in the Social Action. (synthesis from Positivists).
3) It should be a GENERAL Theory looking at human behaviour in a Patterned form. (synthesis from Idealists).
BASIC PREMISE
SOCIAL ACTION Basic Unit of Social Life. Human behaviour is to be seen as a Social Action.
Social Action meaningful response of the actor towards the other stimuli and is oriented towards some Goals.
External EnvironmentStimuli Interpreted in terms of Meanings Goal Directed Behaviour
Meanings to the situation are given by the Actor, and the actor is a being in a Situation (Indiv/group/society).
Behaviour Mechanistic Response; Action Meaningful Response.
Actor Conscious Agency that ascribes meaning to a situation.
Situation is whatever is meaningfully oriented in the Actor’s consciousness.
Situation Conditions – Cannot be controlled by the Actor.
Means – Can be controlled manipulated and changed by the Actor.
CONDITIONS are Constraining and MEANS provide Choices.
Goals are the objectives to be achieved outside the situation. i. e. GOALS LIE OUTSIDE THE SITUATION.
Pre requisites of Social Action 1. Stimuli, 2. Actor, 3. Situation
SOCIAL SITUATIONS consist of a) PHYSICAL OBJECTS – Non living things.
b) SOCIAL OBJECTS – other actors, related to in a certain way
c) CULTURAL OBJECTS – values, norms, beliefs, symbols.
CULTURAL OBJECTS ascribe meanings to Physical and Social objects. (Values are the Ultimate source of all Cultures).
Through CULTURE the situation is interpreted and some meaning is attached to it.
Action has to be viewed from the viewpoint of the Actor. Every Action is a GOAL DIRECTED ACTION.
Meanings Defined and Shaped by Culture Patterned Ways of Culture to be viewed from the viewpoint of the Actor.
Action and Social Reality, in order to be understood in a comprehensive way, should be viewed as a SYSTEM.
SYSTEM is a METHODOLOGICAL and an ANALYTICAL TOOL, a way of looking things to understand Social Action.
Even a Single Social Action can be seen as a System.
Characteristics of a System
1. System is a UNIFIED WHOLE made up of INTERDEPENDENT PARTS known as SUB SYSTEMS. Sub systems have the
ATTRIBUTES of the system.
