BASIC CONCEPTS OF ENVIRONMENTAL SOCIOLOGY
Environmental sociology is an emerging field in the mainstream sociology. It has the potential of
going beyond the traditional sociological limits. It is essentially empirical in nature, broader in scope
and it is developing quite rapidly through a dialectical process. As a special branch of sociology, it has
gained particular momentum after the celebration of earth day ‘in 1970, and the declaration of
seventies as the environmental decade ‘. Its emergence and development are closely associated with
the development of environmental movement throughout the world. Before having a look at the
process of the development of the sociology of environment, it may be useful to have a look at the
basic concepts of environment and ecology.
ENVIRONMENT
Environment has been defined according to various parameters and requirements of the field of
study or the context of dialogue. It is closely associated with another term ecology, which is also, a
problematic and overused concept. Both terms have vast semantic range. To begin with minimal root
meanings are required. The dictionary meaning of these terms according to Collins Dictionary is:
Environs to encircle or surround. En+viron a circle
Environment; [external conditions or surroundings] Ecology; [the external conditions in which a plant
or animal lives, which influence its development and behaviour]. In other words, environment and
ecology refer to the natural conditions, which surround the entirety of human and other forms of life
on this planet.
Environment has been viewed and defined by various people in a number of ways,
A. It has been viewed as a resource; to be exploited, conserved or transformed.
B. As a social actor engaged in series of dynamic relationships with humans. ‘
C. As point of contest between various claimants.
E. For a scientist it represents physical aspects of the surroundings of human and other forms of life.
Dunlap and Catton [1993] view it from the angle of its functions. They have developed a model of
environment and its degradation on the basis of its competing functions. These functions are:
1. Supply depot: The environment is source of renewable or non-renewable natural resources, like
air, water, and forests, fossil fuels that are essential for living. Over use of these resources results in
shortages or scarcities.
2. Living space: Provides housing, transportation systems and other essentials of daily life. Over use
of this function results in overcrowding, congestion and the destruction of habitats for other species.
3. Waste repository: with the waste repository function environment serves as a ̳sink ‘for garbage
[rubbish], sewage, industrial pollution and other by products. Exceeding the ability of ecosystems to
absorb waste results in health problems from toxic wastes and in ecosystem disruption.
ECOSYSTEM / ECOLOGY
In 1970s ecology became part of the popular discourse. The term ecology has a long history before
its ascendancy as the key concept of the contemporary environmental movement.
, 1. Ernest Haeckel, the German disciple of Charles Darwin, officially coined this term in 1866 under
the name of Oecologie. By ecology Haeckel meant ‘the science of relations between organisms and
their environments ‘
2. The plant ecology was further developed by plant geographers most notably among these the
Danish scholar Eugenius Warming who published his classic work Plantsomfund [The Oecology of
Plants] in1895.
Warming ‘s central thesis was ‘that plants and animals in their natural settings tend to form an
interlinked and interwoven community in which change at one point will bring change at other
points also. This is of course, a central message in the contemporary ecological debate.
3. By 1920s the biological ecology was emerging as a major concern. Two prominent figures in its
development were Frederic Clements and Arthur Tansley who developed a distinct branch of biology
called ‘dynamic plant ecology ‘or ‘ecosystem ecology ‘.
4. Clements who spent most of his career, as a research associate at the Carnegie Institution of
Washington, is best known for his study of ecological succession. He visualized the process of
succession as going from embryonic ecological community to a more or less permanent ‘climax
community ‘, which create a balance with its physical environment. Once climax community is
formed, it becomes very difficult for outside invaders to compete successfully with established
species within this climax community. However, a number of external environmental factors like
forest fires, water logging, and erosion—might damage or destroy the climax community and force
the process of succession again.
5. Arthur Tansley, a British plant ecologist, is generally credited with coining of the term ‘ecosystem
‘in mid 1930s. Tansley strongly opposed Clement‘s use of word c̳ ommunity‘ to describe the
relationship of plants and animals within a certain locale, maintaining that it was misleading because
it wrongly suggests the existence of a social order. He proposed a new concept of ecosystem, which
he defined as the ‘system of the exchange of energy and nutrients within a natural system ‘.
6.Tansely in his lectures to ecological society though commonly referred that human communities
might be better understood in relation to their ecological settings. But by and large the plant and
animal ecologists avoided to be drawn into any public controversies.
MAIN REASONS FOR THE POPULARITY OF ECOSYSTEM ECOLOGY
It was in early 1970s that ecology became the cornerstone of new and rapidly growing concern with
the environment. There were several key factors, which explain the popularity of the ecosystem
ecology in the environmental movement.
1) The language and logic of ecology: The language and logic of ecology was linked to rising concerns
of environmental degradation. Rubin [1994] has argued that the instrumental force in effecting this
transformation was a small group of influential writers and thinkers -Rachel Carson, Barry
Commoner, Paul Ehrlich and Garret Hardin functioned as popularizers of scientific ecology. Rachel
Carson introduced the concepts of ‘food chains ‘, the ‘web of life ‘and the ‘balance of nature ‘into the
popular vocabulary for the first time. Commoner [ 1971]
systematized Carson ‘s views into four laws of ecology:
1. Everything is connected to everything else.
Environmental sociology is an emerging field in the mainstream sociology. It has the potential of
going beyond the traditional sociological limits. It is essentially empirical in nature, broader in scope
and it is developing quite rapidly through a dialectical process. As a special branch of sociology, it has
gained particular momentum after the celebration of earth day ‘in 1970, and the declaration of
seventies as the environmental decade ‘. Its emergence and development are closely associated with
the development of environmental movement throughout the world. Before having a look at the
process of the development of the sociology of environment, it may be useful to have a look at the
basic concepts of environment and ecology.
ENVIRONMENT
Environment has been defined according to various parameters and requirements of the field of
study or the context of dialogue. It is closely associated with another term ecology, which is also, a
problematic and overused concept. Both terms have vast semantic range. To begin with minimal root
meanings are required. The dictionary meaning of these terms according to Collins Dictionary is:
Environs to encircle or surround. En+viron a circle
Environment; [external conditions or surroundings] Ecology; [the external conditions in which a plant
or animal lives, which influence its development and behaviour]. In other words, environment and
ecology refer to the natural conditions, which surround the entirety of human and other forms of life
on this planet.
Environment has been viewed and defined by various people in a number of ways,
A. It has been viewed as a resource; to be exploited, conserved or transformed.
B. As a social actor engaged in series of dynamic relationships with humans. ‘
C. As point of contest between various claimants.
E. For a scientist it represents physical aspects of the surroundings of human and other forms of life.
Dunlap and Catton [1993] view it from the angle of its functions. They have developed a model of
environment and its degradation on the basis of its competing functions. These functions are:
1. Supply depot: The environment is source of renewable or non-renewable natural resources, like
air, water, and forests, fossil fuels that are essential for living. Over use of these resources results in
shortages or scarcities.
2. Living space: Provides housing, transportation systems and other essentials of daily life. Over use
of this function results in overcrowding, congestion and the destruction of habitats for other species.
3. Waste repository: with the waste repository function environment serves as a ̳sink ‘for garbage
[rubbish], sewage, industrial pollution and other by products. Exceeding the ability of ecosystems to
absorb waste results in health problems from toxic wastes and in ecosystem disruption.
ECOSYSTEM / ECOLOGY
In 1970s ecology became part of the popular discourse. The term ecology has a long history before
its ascendancy as the key concept of the contemporary environmental movement.
, 1. Ernest Haeckel, the German disciple of Charles Darwin, officially coined this term in 1866 under
the name of Oecologie. By ecology Haeckel meant ‘the science of relations between organisms and
their environments ‘
2. The plant ecology was further developed by plant geographers most notably among these the
Danish scholar Eugenius Warming who published his classic work Plantsomfund [The Oecology of
Plants] in1895.
Warming ‘s central thesis was ‘that plants and animals in their natural settings tend to form an
interlinked and interwoven community in which change at one point will bring change at other
points also. This is of course, a central message in the contemporary ecological debate.
3. By 1920s the biological ecology was emerging as a major concern. Two prominent figures in its
development were Frederic Clements and Arthur Tansley who developed a distinct branch of biology
called ‘dynamic plant ecology ‘or ‘ecosystem ecology ‘.
4. Clements who spent most of his career, as a research associate at the Carnegie Institution of
Washington, is best known for his study of ecological succession. He visualized the process of
succession as going from embryonic ecological community to a more or less permanent ‘climax
community ‘, which create a balance with its physical environment. Once climax community is
formed, it becomes very difficult for outside invaders to compete successfully with established
species within this climax community. However, a number of external environmental factors like
forest fires, water logging, and erosion—might damage or destroy the climax community and force
the process of succession again.
5. Arthur Tansley, a British plant ecologist, is generally credited with coining of the term ‘ecosystem
‘in mid 1930s. Tansley strongly opposed Clement‘s use of word c̳ ommunity‘ to describe the
relationship of plants and animals within a certain locale, maintaining that it was misleading because
it wrongly suggests the existence of a social order. He proposed a new concept of ecosystem, which
he defined as the ‘system of the exchange of energy and nutrients within a natural system ‘.
6.Tansely in his lectures to ecological society though commonly referred that human communities
might be better understood in relation to their ecological settings. But by and large the plant and
animal ecologists avoided to be drawn into any public controversies.
MAIN REASONS FOR THE POPULARITY OF ECOSYSTEM ECOLOGY
It was in early 1970s that ecology became the cornerstone of new and rapidly growing concern with
the environment. There were several key factors, which explain the popularity of the ecosystem
ecology in the environmental movement.
1) The language and logic of ecology: The language and logic of ecology was linked to rising concerns
of environmental degradation. Rubin [1994] has argued that the instrumental force in effecting this
transformation was a small group of influential writers and thinkers -Rachel Carson, Barry
Commoner, Paul Ehrlich and Garret Hardin functioned as popularizers of scientific ecology. Rachel
Carson introduced the concepts of ‘food chains ‘, the ‘web of life ‘and the ‘balance of nature ‘into the
popular vocabulary for the first time. Commoner [ 1971]
systematized Carson ‘s views into four laws of ecology:
1. Everything is connected to everything else.
