P Biology Exam Terms 2023 with complete solution questions and answers

organic compounds contain carbon; examples include lipids, proteins, and carbs functional groups amino (NH2), carbonyl (RCOR), carboxyl (COOH), hydroxyl (OH), phosphate (PO4), sulfhydryl (SH) fat glycerol and three fatty acids saturated fats bad for you; animals and some plants have it; solidifies at room temp. unsaturated fats better for you, plants have it; liquifies at room temp. steriods lipids whose structures resemble chicken-wire fence. include cholesterol and sex hormones phospholipids glycerol + 2 fatty acids + 1 phosphate group; makes up membrane bilayers of cells; hydrophobic interiors and hydrophillic exteriors carbohydrates used by cells for energy and stucture; monosaccharides (glucose), disaccharides (sucrose, maltose, lactose), storage polysaccharides (starch [plants], glycogen [animals]), structural polysaccharides (chitin [fungi], cellulose [arthropods]) proteins made with the help of ribosomes out of amino acids; serve many functions (transport, enzymes, cell signals, receptor molecules, structural components, and channels) enzymes catalytic proteins that react in an induced-fit fashion with substrates to speed up that rate of reactions by lowering the activation energy competitve inhibtion inhibitor resembles substrate and binds to active site noncompetitive inhibition inhibitor binds elsewhere on the enzyme; alters active site so that the substrate cannot bind pH logarithmic scale; 7 acidic, 7 neutral, 7 basic (alkaline); 4 is 10 times more acidic than 5 hydrolysis breaks down compounds by adding water dehydration two components brought together, producing H2O endergonic reaction reaction that requires input of energy exergonic reaction reaction that gives off energy redox electron transfer reactions cell wall found in prokaryotes and plant cells eukaryotes; protects and shapes the cell plasma membrane found in prokaryotes and eukaryotes; regulates what substances enter and leave a cell ribosome found in prokaryotes and eukaryotes; host for protein synthesis; form in nucleolus smooth ER found in eukaryotes; lipid synthesis, detoxification, carbohydrate metabolism; contains no ribosomes on cytoplasmic surface rough ER found in eukaryotes; synthesizes proteins to secrete or send to plasma membrane; contains ribosomes on cytoplasmic surface Golgi found in eukaryotes; modifies lipids, proteins to secrete or send to plasma membrane; contains ribosomes on cytoplasmic surface mitochondria found in eukaryotes; power plant of cell; hosts major energy-producing steps of respiration lysosome found in eukaryotes; contains enzymes that digest organic compounds; serves as cell's stomach nucleus found in eukaryotes; control center of cell; host for transcription, replication, and DNA peroxisome found in eukaryotes; breakdown of fatty acids, detoxification of alcohol chloroplast found in plant cells eukaryotes; site of photosynthesis in plants cytoskeleton found in eukaryotes; skeleton of cell; consists of microtubules, microfilaments, and intermediate filaments vacuole large in plant cells and small in animal cells; storage vaults of cells centrioles found in animal cells eukaryote; part of microtubule separation apparatus that assits cell division in animal cells fluid mosaic model plasma membrane is selectively permeable phosolipid bilayer with proteins of various lengths and sizes interspersed with cholesterol amoung the phospholipids integral proteins proteins implanted within lipid bilayer of plasma membrane diffusion passive movement of substances down their concentration gradient (from high to low concentrations) osmosis passive movement of water from the side of low solute concentration to the side of high solute concentration facilitated diffusion assisted transport of particles across membrane (no energy input) active transport movement of substances against concentration gradient (low to high concentrations; requires energy input) endocytosis phagocytosis of particles into cell through the use of vesicles exocytosis process by which particles are ejected from the cell, similar to movement in a trash chute aerobic respiration glycolysis - krebs cycle - oxidative phosphorylation - 36 ATP per glucose molecule anaerobic respiration (fermentation) glycolysis - regenerate NAD+ - 2 ATP per glucose molecule glycolysis conversion of 1 glucose molecule into 2 pyruvate, 2 ATP, and 2 NADH; occurs in the cytoplasma, and in both aerobic and anaerobic respiration; must have NAD+ to proceed Krebs cycle conversion 1 pyruvate molecule into 4 NADH, 1 FADH2, 1 ATP, H2O, and CO2; occurs twice for each glucose to yeild double the products above; occurs in the mitochondria oxidative phosphorylation production of large amounts of ATP from NADH and FADH2; occurs in the mitochrondria; requires the presence of oxygen to proceed chemiosmosis coupling of the movement of electrons down the ETC with the formation of ATP using the driving force provided by the proton gradient; occurs in both cell respiration and photosynthesis to produce ATP ATP synthase enzyme responsible for using protons to actually produce ATP from ADP fermentation process that regenerates NAD+ so glycolsis can begin again; occurs in absence of oxygen alcohol fermentation occurs in fungi, yeast, and bacteria; causes conversion of pyruvate to ethanol lactic acid fermentation occurs in humans and animal muscles; causes conversion of pyruvate - lactate; causes cramping sensation when oxygen runs low in muscles photosynthesis process by which plants use the energy from light to generate sugar; occurs in chloroplasts; light reactions (thylakoid), and Calvin cycle (stroma) autotroph self-nourishing organism that is also known as a producer (plants) heterotrophs organisms that must consume other organisms to obtain energy--consmers transpiration loss of water via evaporation through the stomata photophosphorylation process by which ATP is made during light reactions photolysis process by which water is split into hydrogen ions and oxygen atoms (light reactions) stomata structure through which CO2 enters a plant, and water vapor and oxygen leave plant pigment molcule that absorbs light of a particular wavelength (chlorophyll, carotenoid, phycobilins) C4 plants plants that have adapted their photosynthetic process to more efficiently handle hot and dry conditions C4 photosynthesis process that first converts CO2 into a 4-carbon molcule in the mesophyll cells, converts that product to malate and then shuttles it to the bundle sheath cells, where the malate releases CO2 and rubisco picks it up as if all were normal CAM plants plants close their stomata during the day, collect CO2 at night, and store the CO2 in the form of acids until it is needed during the day for photosynthesis binary fission prokaryotic cell division; double the DNA, double the size, then split apart cell cycle growth 1 - synthesis - growth 2 - mitosis cytokinesis physical separation of newly formed daughter cells of cell division cell division control mechanisms growth factors, checkpoints, density-dependent inhibition, and cyclins and protein kinases growth factors factors then when present, promote growth, and when absent, impede growth checkpoints a cell stops growing to make sure it has the nutrients and raw materials to proceed density-dependent inhibition cell stops growing when certain density is reached cyclins and protein kinases cyclin combines with CDK to form a structure known as MPF that pushes cell into mitosis when enough is present haploid (n) one copy of each chromosome diploid (2n) two copies of each chromosome homologous chromosomes chromosomes that are similar in shape, size, and function spermatogenesis the process of male gamete formation (four sperm from one cell) oogenesis the process of female gamete formation (one ovum from each cell) life cycles sequences of events that make up the reproductive cycle of an organism human life cycle zygote (2n) - multicellular orgainsm (2n) - gametes (n) - zygote (2n) fungi life cycle zygote (2n) - multicellular orgainsm (n) - gametes (n) - zygote (2n) plants life cycle zygote (2n) - sporophyte (2n) - spores (n) - gametophyte (n) - gametes (n) - zygote (2n) source of variation crossover, 2^n possible gametes that can be formed, random pairing of gametes character heritable feature, such as flower color monohybrid cross cross involving one character (3:1 phenotype ratio) dihybrid cross cross involving two different characters (9:3:3:1 phenotype ratio) law of segregation the two alleles for a trait separate during the formation of gametes--one to each gamete law of indendent assortment inheritance of one trait does not interfere with the inheritance of another trait law of dominance if two opposite pure-breeding varieties are crossed, all offspring resemble dominant parent intermediate inheritance heterozygous individual shows characterstics unlike either parent incomplete dominance Yy produces a intermediate phenotype between YY and yy codominace both alleles express themselves fully in a Yy individual polygenetic traits traits that are affected by more then one gene (eye color or skin color) multiple alleles traits that correspond to more than two alleles epistasis a gene at one locus alters the phenotypic expression of a gene at another locus pleiotropy a single gene has multiple effects on an organism sex determination males are XY, females are XX autosomal chromosome chromosome not involved in gender sex-linked traits passed along the X chromosome; more common in males then females X inactivation one of two X chromosomes is randomly inactivated and remains coiled as a Barr body holandric trait trait that is inherited via the Y chromosome linked genes genes that lie along the same chromsome and do not follow the law of independent assortment crossover a form of genetic recombination that occurs during prophase I of meiosis linkage map genetic map put together using crossover frequencies pedigree family tree used to describe genetic relationships autosomal recessive disorders Tay-Sachs, Cystic fibrosis, sickle cell anemia, phenylketonuria autosomal dominant disorders Huntington disease and achondroplasia nondisjunction error in which homologous chromosomes do not separate properly chromosomal disorders deletion, inversions, duplications, and translocations DNA contains A, G, C, and T; arranged in double helix of two strands held together by hydrogen bonds RNA contains A, G, C, and U; singled stranded mRNA blueprints for proteins tRNA brings acids to ribosomes rRNA make of ribosomes DNA replication occurs in S-phase, semiconservative, built in 5' to 3' direction frameshift mutation deletion or addition of nucleotides; shifts reading frame missense mutation subsitution of wrong nucleotide into DNA; still produces a protein nonsense mutation subsitution of wrong nucleotide into DNA that produces an early stop codon transcription process by which mRNA is synthesized on a DNA template RNA processing introns (noncoding) are spliced out, exon (coding) glued together translation process by which the mRNA specified sequence of amino acids is lined up on a ribosome for protein synthesis codon triplet of nucleotides that codes for a particular amino acid promoter base sequence that signals start site for transcription repressor protein that prevents the binding of RNA polymerase to promoter site inducer molecule that binds to and inactivates a repressor operator short sequence near the promoter that assists in transcription by interacting with transcription factors operon on/off switch for transcription, allows for production of genes only when needed viruses parastic infectious agent unable to survive outside the host; can obtain DNA or RNA, or have a viral envelope lytic cycle one in which the virus is actively reproducing and kills the host cell lysogenic cycle one in which the virus lie dormant within the DNA of the host cell retrovirus RNA virus that carries with it reverse transcriptase (HIV) prion virus that converts host brain proteins into misshapen proteins viroids tiny plant viruses phage virus that infects bacteria bacteria prokaryotic cell consists of one double strand circular DNA molecule; reproduce by binary fission transformation uptake of foreign DNA from the surrounding environment transduction movement of genes from one cell to another by phages, which incorporated by crossover generalized transduction lytic cycle accidently places host DNA into a phage, which is brought to another cell specialized transduction virus leaving lysogenic cycle brings host DNA with it into phage conjugation transfer of DNA between two bacterial cell connected by sex pili restriction enzymes enzymes that cut DNA at a paticular sequences, creating sticky ends vector mover of DNA from one source to another cloning somewhat slow process by which a desired sequence of DNA is copied numerous times gel electrophoresis technique used to separate DNA according to size. DNA moves from - to + polymerase chain reaction (PCR) produces large quanties of sequence in short amount of time modes of evolution genetic drift, gene flow, mutation, natural selection genetic drift change in allele frequencies because of chance events gene flow change in allele frequencies as genes move from one population to another mutation change in allele frequencies due to random genetic change in an allele natural selection process by which characters or traits maintained or eliminated in a population based on their contribution to the differential survival and reproductive succes of their "host" organism variation differences must exist between individuals hertiability the traits to be selected for must be able to be passed along to offspring differential reproductive success there must be variation amoung parents in how many offspring they produce as a result of the different traits that the parent have adaption a trait that, if altered, affects the fitness of an organism