a. Axial skeleton Appendicular skeleton
- skull - pectoral girdle: clavicle & scapula
- vertebral column - pelvic girdle: pelvis & sacrum
- sternum - forelimb: humerus & ulna + radius
- ribcage carpals / metacarpals / phalanges
- hind limb: femur & tibia + fibula
tarsals / metatarsals / phalanges
b. fractures: force of high impact/stress > strength (trauma)
Simple: don’t involve other tissues
Compound (open): involve other tissues – bone penetrates skin / internal tissues/organs – high risk of infection
- antibiotics for damaged surrounding tissue
- pain-killers
Displaced: bones misaligned
- re-align manually + immobilise
Non-displaced: bone remains in normal position
- immobilise with splint/cast
heal naturally: osteoblasts produce new bony tissue & osteoclasts remodel bone
Comminuted: bone fragments into several pieces
- surgically insert screw / metal plate – promotes healing (speed up recovery & return to mobility)
c. vertebral column: flexible (allows bending & twisting) + protect spinal cord + attach ribs + support
vertebra – 33: held by ligaments & separated by intervertebral discs of cartilage
- vertebral body: weight-bearing
- vertebral arch & canal: protect spinal cord
- processes: muscle attachment
- facet joints: articulation with adjacent vertebrae
cervical 7 – neck
1. atlas: allows nodding
2. axis: (fits into atlas) allows shaking
- longer spinous & shorter transverse processes
- wider triangular canal – spinal nerve widest in cervical region
- vertebrarterial canals: blood vessels to brain
thoracic 12 – thorax
- more facets + transverse processes – articulate with ribs
lumbar 5 – lower back
- more processes
- large body – support body weight & absorb lifting stress
- thick arch & small canal
sacral 5 – hips (fused into sacrum)
coccyx 4 – tailbone
3. postural deformities
scoliosis: additional sideways spine curve
causes: posture / injury / gene mutation
treatment: physiotherapy / spine brace
flat foot: no arch formation knock knees
causes: genetic / congenital / injury cause: lack of Vitamin D / calcium
treatment: specialised footwear / surgery
- skull - pectoral girdle: clavicle & scapula
- vertebral column - pelvic girdle: pelvis & sacrum
- sternum - forelimb: humerus & ulna + radius
- ribcage carpals / metacarpals / phalanges
- hind limb: femur & tibia + fibula
tarsals / metatarsals / phalanges
b. fractures: force of high impact/stress > strength (trauma)
Simple: don’t involve other tissues
Compound (open): involve other tissues – bone penetrates skin / internal tissues/organs – high risk of infection
- antibiotics for damaged surrounding tissue
- pain-killers
Displaced: bones misaligned
- re-align manually + immobilise
Non-displaced: bone remains in normal position
- immobilise with splint/cast
heal naturally: osteoblasts produce new bony tissue & osteoclasts remodel bone
Comminuted: bone fragments into several pieces
- surgically insert screw / metal plate – promotes healing (speed up recovery & return to mobility)
c. vertebral column: flexible (allows bending & twisting) + protect spinal cord + attach ribs + support
vertebra – 33: held by ligaments & separated by intervertebral discs of cartilage
- vertebral body: weight-bearing
- vertebral arch & canal: protect spinal cord
- processes: muscle attachment
- facet joints: articulation with adjacent vertebrae
cervical 7 – neck
1. atlas: allows nodding
2. axis: (fits into atlas) allows shaking
- longer spinous & shorter transverse processes
- wider triangular canal – spinal nerve widest in cervical region
- vertebrarterial canals: blood vessels to brain
thoracic 12 – thorax
- more facets + transverse processes – articulate with ribs
lumbar 5 – lower back
- more processes
- large body – support body weight & absorb lifting stress
- thick arch & small canal
sacral 5 – hips (fused into sacrum)
coccyx 4 – tailbone
3. postural deformities
scoliosis: additional sideways spine curve
causes: posture / injury / gene mutation
treatment: physiotherapy / spine brace
flat foot: no arch formation knock knees
causes: genetic / congenital / injury cause: lack of Vitamin D / calcium
treatment: specialised footwear / surgery
