BIOL 250 FINAL EXAM 2023 with 100% correct questions and answers

Robert Hooke developed the first microscope, used to look at plant cells, first to use the term cells-- looked like what monks lived in Anton Van Leeuwenhoek father of microbiology first to look at living material-- scraped his teeth and saw that sick people had different microogranisms than his did Carolus Linnaeus binomial nomenclature schleiden and schwann formulated the cell theory-- cells are fundamental unit of life and carry out functions of all living things Louis Pasteur swan flask experiment-- if the flask was tipped then it would come in contact with particles and growth would occur immediately Koch's postulates When determining the causative agent of disease... 1. specific causative agent must be fond in every case of the disease 2. the disease organism must be isolated into pure culture 3. inoculate a sample of the culture into a previously healthy individual-- must produce the same disease symptoms 4. culture recovered from the inoculated animal must be the same as the original disease causing agent What did Koch identify the causative agents of cholera-- Vibrio cholerae tuberculosis--Mycobacterium tuberculosis anthrax-- Bacillus anthracis Phillip Semmelweis doctors should wash their hands-- connection between doctors doing autopsies and delivering babies Joseph Lister father of antiseptic surgery atom smallest chemical unit element composted of one kind of matter molecule two or more atoms combied-- O2 compound multiple elements- C6H12O6 atomic weight sum of protons and neutrons atomic number sum of protons in the nucleus cations lose an electron when joined with another atom, become more positively charged anion gain an electron, become more negatively charged isotopes atoms within elements that have different number on neutrons-- ex. carbon12,13,14 gram molecular weight adding based on atomic weights Avogadro's number 6.023x10^23 ionic bond outermost electrons are transferred from one orbital to another covalent bond sharing on electrons between orbitals-- certain arrangements are favorable and can hold the structure of compounds together hydrogen bond interactions among postvely and negatively charged assets-- weak individually but stronger molecular strength when grouping catabolism two elements/compounds joined together to release the energy (break down of substances) anabolism building of substances qualities of water 1. act as a solvent bc of its polar nature, negative attracts positive, vice versa 2. surface tensions-- provides physical strenght 3. high specific heat-- heat can be maintained in living entities, ex. maintaining body temp 4. medium for most chemical reactions mixture two substances combined but not chemically bound-- sugar and salt solution two substances combined and not easily broken-- salt or sugar in water solute the substance that is dissolved-- the sugar solvent solutions in which substances are dissolved pH scales relates concentration to a numeric value carbohydrates main source of energy for most living things levels of carbohydrates monosaccharides- glucose disaccharides- lactose polysaccharides- starch/glycogen common functional groups OH: hydroxyl groups CO: carbonyl groups COOH: carboxyl groups NH2: amino groups PO4: phosphate groups backbone of nucleic acid made up by which carbohydrates deoxyribose and ribose characteristics of lipids for the cell membrane structure--barrier between the outside of cell world and inside the cell unsaturated vs saturated fatty acids saturated: has a linear structure, packed together more densely unsaturated: formation of double bond, liquid at room temperature bc they are not packed closely together phospholipid bilayer hydrophilic heads pointing outward and hydrophobic heads inwards-- formation of cell membrane four levels of structures primary, secondary, tertiary, quarternary nucleic acids sugar backbone, nitrogenous case high energy bonds--essential to enhance energy -purines and pyrimadines nucleotide make up 1. nitrogenous base --a. purine: double ring, larger, you want more gold "pure as gold" adenine and guanine b. pyrimidine: cytosine, thymine, ursine 2. 5-carbon sugar of ribose/deoxyribose 3. at least 2 phosphate DNA vs. RNA A, G, C present in both T in DNA, U in RNA DNA double stranded, RNA single stranded deoxyribose characteristics of prokaryotes lack a nucleus lack membrane bound organelles-- endoplasmic reticulum, chloroplasts, golgi apparatus, mitochondria, etc. no membrane that surrounds and separate genetic info unicellular what are the two prokaryotic domains bacteria and archaea Eukaryotes have nucles and membrane bound organelles size shape and arrangement of eukaryotes small-- most around .5-2 mm can be cocci, bacilli, vibrioid (comma shaped) or spirrilium (squigly) arrangement: diplo (pairs), strepto (chain), tetrads (4s) staphylo (cluster) functions of a bacterial cell wall maintain shape of cell, prevent cells from bursting as a result of osmotic changes what composes a cell wall alternating sugars -NAGs and NAMs alternating to create a peptidoglycan layer the cross-linking bridges provide strength to cell wall structure gram positive vs gram negative g(+) many layers, think peptidoglycan, looks purple with gram stain g(-) thin peptidoglycan, looks pink with gram stain why do we gram stain to evaluate differences in cell wall structure steps of gram staining thin smear on glass slide and heat fix it w/ flame to allow them to adhere to the slide 1. crystal violent stain 2. mordant: gram's iodine-- slide appear purpley golden 3. alcohol-- decolorizing step, lipid layer is broken down 4. counter stain w safranin-- allows to differentiate cell wall types acid fast bacteria do not have a classic gram positive or negative structure mycoplasmas lack cell walls archae cell wall made up of pseudomurein-- made on sinsistent muramic acid, does not have alternating nags and nams cell membrane functions of archaea 1. regulate movement of materials in and out of cells 2. can synthesize cell wall components 3. assist w/ DNA replication 4. captures ATP for energy 5. serves as an anchor for flagella types of flagella monotrichous: 1 flagellum at one end amphitrichous: a flagellum at each end lophotrichous: many flagella at one end peritrichous: flagella over their entire surface atrichous: lack flagella archaea characteristics energy comes from proton gradient the propelling flagella is a run and tumble chemotaxis/phototaxis chemical gradients/light gradients to help move toward or away pili aid in sex for prokaryotic cells conjucation pilus aids in transfer of genetic info form one cell to another attachment pili aid in attachment to surfaces, can help bacterial organisms stay in a highly suitable environment, nutrients supplied through a biofilm internal structure of prokaryotes cytoplasm, ribosomes, endospores cytoplasm makes up the aquatic environment of the cell, 4/5 water, 1/5 substance (salt, enzymes, proteins, lipids) ******ribosomes come back to this prok: 30s+50s=70s euk: 40s+60s=80s S stands for... svedburg units-- to describe molecular weight small subunit 16s rRNA+21 proteins= 1540 nt large subunit 5s rRNA + 23s rRNA +31 proteins=120 nt endospores resting stage to enhance survival over significant time makeup of eukaryotic cells nucleus: rough er on outside, ribosomes making it rough smooth ER: inside-- lysosomes mitochondria: power house of cell, makes ATP chloroplast: photosynthesis endosymbiotic theory 1. strucutre of mitochondria and chloroplast are about the same size as prokaryote 2. mitochondria and chloroplast have different DNA structures than their host 3. mitochondria and chloroplast both have 70s size ribosomes 4. membrane that surrounds have a double membrane for both mitochondira and chloroplast-- same as prokaryotes catabolic taking glucose molecule and breaking it down into smaller molecules-- energy production anabolic how to take smaller molecules and build larger molecules oxidation reaction loss of electrons reduction reaction gain of electrons-- when a substance loses electrons or is oxidized, energy is released, but another substance must gain the electrons, or be reduced at the same time redox reaction 2H2+O2--2H2O a reaction in which both reduction and oxidation take place denaturation of enzyme increase in temp-- enzymatic structure is denatured bc the temp is higher so enzyme can no longer work the same endoenzymes produced and maintained in cells exoenzymes made inside cell but live outside to do things coenzymes non-protein organic molecules that are synthesized from vitamins feedback inhibition a kind of reversible noncompetitive inhibition that regulates the rate of many metabolic pathways non-competitive inhibitors attach to the enzyme at an allosteric site which distort the tertiary protein structure and alter the shape of the active site glycolysis an anaerobic metabolism four take homes of glycolysis 1. substrate level phosphorylation (ATP--glucose) 2. breaking of 6-C glucose to 2x 3-C molecules 3. transfer of 2e- to coenzyme NAD+ 4. capture of E in ATP what are the first steps of oxidation 1. phosphate group is transferred to glucose to from ATP, forming glucose 6-phosphate 2. use 2 ATP to phosphorolate glucose to make high energy bonds to move through reactions **for every other reaction that follows, you have to double the product what comes out? 2 3-C pyruvic acid 4 ATP 2 NADH-- (H is a proton additoin saying there has been a charged balance) prep step 1. modification of pyruvic acid to acetyl coA + CO2 2. reduction (NAD--NADH) -for every glucose molecule, we see 2 prep step- Citric acid cycle glycolysis stuff -occurs in the cytoplasm in a prokaryotic cell oxygen is reduced to water, protons come from inside the cell, when we lose protons the pH increases as electrons move through, there is the pumping and building of the proton gradient what does the krebs cycle produce 1 GTP, 1 FADH2, 3NADH binary fission going from one parent cell to two daughter cells mechanism of cell devision how bacterial populations divide lag phase cells are adjusting to new environmental conditions time varies based on the culture logarithmic phase cells dividing at a regular place, nutrients are available with each division the population is doubling stationary phase no change in number of cells in cultures cells added through division but lost during death decline/death phase rate of cell lysis/death exceeds cell growth serial dilution diluting to have a more realistic evaluation of the number of colonies each colony growing on the agar surface represents generational growth 30-300 is ideal direct counting evaluating cell number, gets total count of living cells turbidity lots of bacterial cells in a test tube factors affecting bacterial growth ph, temperature, o2, pressure acidophile .1-5.4 neutrophiles 5.4-8.0 alkaphiles 8.0-11.5 psychophile 15-20 degrees, slow growing mesophiles 25-40 degrees, 37 is body temp thermaphiles 50-60 degrees, optimum range obligate aerobes require oxygen obligate anaerobes cannot survive with oxygen microaerophiles requie o2 for terminal electron acceptor, but don't need much-- grow best at o2 concentrations, slightly less than one atom, found in sediments facultative anaerobes would prefer to use oxygen as electron acceptor, but if absent it can use another and ferment genetic capability allows them to be flexible/variable aerotolerant anaerobes don't use o2 as electron acceptors but can tolerate oxygen present in environment barophile likes high pressure environment plasmid antibiotic resistance genes, enhancement in genetic function within the cell reverse transcription trna to dna central dogma of molecular biology dna transcribed into rna translated into a protein locus positioning of genes genotype genetic makeup of an allele phenotype outward expression of genetic component origin of replication is rich with what ATP where does dna polymerase attach and what does it do? attaches to the origin of replication and starts replicating in what direction can new nucleotides be added 5 prime-3 prime direction-- attaches to parent strand what are lagging strands called okazagi fragments what glues the okazagi fragments together? DNA ligase RNA Polymerase 5 prime to 3 prime, A C G U single stranded rRNA ribosomal RNA single stranded link of nucleotides that get twisted into shape and "small pins" hold it together tRNA transfer RNA, clover leaf shape, has bends at three prime end for binding of amino acids mRNA convey genetic information from DNA to the ribosome, where they specify the amino acid sequence of the protein products of gene expression. promoter region is.... AT rich terminator region is rich with.... gc sequence, end of synthesis of the RNA molecule codon length of a 3 nucleotide tRNA molecule contains a significant three nucleotide code called an.... anticodon genetic code all different codon arrangement and their amino acids 64 codons and 20 amino acids start codon AUG parts of translation epa-- eject, peptide bond former, active site what happens in translation the whole ribosome shifts 3 down, goes out the back end-- tRNA molecule peptide bond former is attached where to an anticodon where is the initial second amino acid in the p site what is shifting down the nucleotides ribosomes, to enhance formation of the peptide bonds what is the ultimate source of genetic variability mutation-- can happen spontaneously or with and error in replication what is a silent mutation when the dna sequence change leads to mRNA sequence change, but the same protein is formed--- genotype changed but phenotype same insertion addition of a nucleotide deletion removal of a nucleotide mutations alter the reading from and the sense of how the RNA is read to make the amino acid point shift mutation one base is substituted for another at a specific location in a gene. frame shift mutation adding a whole codon acridine derivative inserts into DNA ladder between backbones to form a new rung, distorting the helix-- frameshift mutation deaminating agents Removes an amino group (— NH2) from a nitrogenous base → point mutation. base analogue substitutes look alike molecule for normal nitrogenous base during DNA replication-- point shift alkalyting agent adds an alkyl group to a nitrogenous base resulting in incorrect pairing-- point mutation uv radiation links pyrimidines to eachother, causing thymine dimer formation --replication x-ray and gamma rays Ionize and break molecules in cells to form free radicals, which in turn break DNA. repair enzymes light repair and dark repair light repair enzyme repair of DNA dimers by a light-activated enzyme