Issues and Debates Notes
Issues and Debates: Psychology as a Science
Scientists use the hypothetico-deductive method which involves testing theories by generating
hypotheses.
Validity- Internal validity is testing what is intended to be tested. Researchers achieve this by
using controls to minimise the effect of extraneous/confounding variables
Reductionism- Reductionism is the belief that human behaviour can be explained by breaking it
down into simpler component parts. Scientific study requires the isolation of variables to make it
possible to identify the causes of behaviour. Breaking complicated behaviour's down to small
parts means that they can be scientifically tested
Peer Reviewed- Where fellow scientists evaluate research to assess its contribution
Causality- the relationship between cause and effect.
Replicable- Ensuring measures and procedures are consistent in order to see if consistent results
can be obtained.
Falsifiable- The idea that we cannot prove anything to be true we can only attempt to prove
something wrong, within set bounds of certainty.
Observable- Based on the examination and measurement of behaviours which are visible for all
to see
Objective- Not affected by personal feelings or opinions
Testable- Open to direct assessment and measurement through hypothesis testing
Empirical- The view that knowledge can only come through direct observation or experiment
rather than by reasoned argument or belief
, Issues and Debates: Reductionism and Holism
Reductionism- when cognitions, emotions and behaviour can best be understood by breaking
explanations down to the smallest possible parts.
Holism- when cognitions, emotions and behaviour can be best explained by taking a wider
perspective.
Holism
The idea that human behaviour should be viewed as a whole integrated experience, and not as
separate parts.
Gestalt psychology adopts a holistic approach to perception:
when we perceive something in the real world, we do so as
a whole rather than as a collection of bits and pieces.
Humanistic psychology argues that humans react to stimuli
as an organised whole, rather than a set of stimulus-
response links. As an approach, it uses qualitative methods
to investigate all aspects of the individual, as well as the
interactions between people.
Reductionism
Reductionism is the belief that human behaviour can
be explained by breaking it down into simpler
component parts.
Biological Reductionism: psychologists try to reduce behaviour to a physical level and explain it
in terms of NT, Neurons, Brain Structure.
Environmental Reductionism: behaviourists assume that all behaviour can be reduced to the
simple building blocks of stimulus-response (SR) associations
Experimental Reductionism: where a complex behaviour is reduced to a single (isolated) variable
Evolutionary Reductionism: the attempt to explain psychological phenomenon, via the principles
of adaptiveness. For example, survival of the fittest.
Machine Reductionism: psychological phenomenon is likened to a machine and how a machine
functions, with processes, stores, inputs and outputs.
Strengths and weaknesses of Reductionism
Strengths Weaknesses
Simple, easier to understand Too simplistic, ignores other explanations
Allows explanations for behaviour
Helps us develop treatment for
unwanted/undesired behaviours.
Issues and Debates: Practical Issues: Humans
, Psychologists want their research to be:
- Accurate: Are they measuring what they intend to measure or as results affected by lying,
guessing or other external factors?
- Replicable: Can other psychologists carry out their study and get the same results?
- Universal: Will the results apply to other people, places or times?
Practical issues in the design and implementation of research:
Confounding Variables are a type of extraneous variable where the extraneous variable changes
systematical with the IV – it is acting as another IV and affects the DV. These should be identified and
controlled before the study is conducted.
Extraneous variables are any variable that may affect the DV that is not the IV. The researcher needs
to ensure that these remain constant
Researchers try and make their research as free from confounding variables as possible, but each
decision has a consequence. It’s like a seesaw.
Examples from the course:
Social
• Studying obedience or prejudice Cognitive
• Using questionnaires • Measuring memory
• Using interviews • Using experiments
Biological • Using Case studies
• Investigating aggression Learning
• Scanning Techniques • Using animal research
• Using adoption and twin studies • Using observations
Issues and Debates: Ethical Issues: Humans
Issues and Debates: Psychology as a Science
Scientists use the hypothetico-deductive method which involves testing theories by generating
hypotheses.
Validity- Internal validity is testing what is intended to be tested. Researchers achieve this by
using controls to minimise the effect of extraneous/confounding variables
Reductionism- Reductionism is the belief that human behaviour can be explained by breaking it
down into simpler component parts. Scientific study requires the isolation of variables to make it
possible to identify the causes of behaviour. Breaking complicated behaviour's down to small
parts means that they can be scientifically tested
Peer Reviewed- Where fellow scientists evaluate research to assess its contribution
Causality- the relationship between cause and effect.
Replicable- Ensuring measures and procedures are consistent in order to see if consistent results
can be obtained.
Falsifiable- The idea that we cannot prove anything to be true we can only attempt to prove
something wrong, within set bounds of certainty.
Observable- Based on the examination and measurement of behaviours which are visible for all
to see
Objective- Not affected by personal feelings or opinions
Testable- Open to direct assessment and measurement through hypothesis testing
Empirical- The view that knowledge can only come through direct observation or experiment
rather than by reasoned argument or belief
, Issues and Debates: Reductionism and Holism
Reductionism- when cognitions, emotions and behaviour can best be understood by breaking
explanations down to the smallest possible parts.
Holism- when cognitions, emotions and behaviour can be best explained by taking a wider
perspective.
Holism
The idea that human behaviour should be viewed as a whole integrated experience, and not as
separate parts.
Gestalt psychology adopts a holistic approach to perception:
when we perceive something in the real world, we do so as
a whole rather than as a collection of bits and pieces.
Humanistic psychology argues that humans react to stimuli
as an organised whole, rather than a set of stimulus-
response links. As an approach, it uses qualitative methods
to investigate all aspects of the individual, as well as the
interactions between people.
Reductionism
Reductionism is the belief that human behaviour can
be explained by breaking it down into simpler
component parts.
Biological Reductionism: psychologists try to reduce behaviour to a physical level and explain it
in terms of NT, Neurons, Brain Structure.
Environmental Reductionism: behaviourists assume that all behaviour can be reduced to the
simple building blocks of stimulus-response (SR) associations
Experimental Reductionism: where a complex behaviour is reduced to a single (isolated) variable
Evolutionary Reductionism: the attempt to explain psychological phenomenon, via the principles
of adaptiveness. For example, survival of the fittest.
Machine Reductionism: psychological phenomenon is likened to a machine and how a machine
functions, with processes, stores, inputs and outputs.
Strengths and weaknesses of Reductionism
Strengths Weaknesses
Simple, easier to understand Too simplistic, ignores other explanations
Allows explanations for behaviour
Helps us develop treatment for
unwanted/undesired behaviours.
Issues and Debates: Practical Issues: Humans
, Psychologists want their research to be:
- Accurate: Are they measuring what they intend to measure or as results affected by lying,
guessing or other external factors?
- Replicable: Can other psychologists carry out their study and get the same results?
- Universal: Will the results apply to other people, places or times?
Practical issues in the design and implementation of research:
Confounding Variables are a type of extraneous variable where the extraneous variable changes
systematical with the IV – it is acting as another IV and affects the DV. These should be identified and
controlled before the study is conducted.
Extraneous variables are any variable that may affect the DV that is not the IV. The researcher needs
to ensure that these remain constant
Researchers try and make their research as free from confounding variables as possible, but each
decision has a consequence. It’s like a seesaw.
Examples from the course:
Social
• Studying obedience or prejudice Cognitive
• Using questionnaires • Measuring memory
• Using interviews • Using experiments
Biological • Using Case studies
• Investigating aggression Learning
• Scanning Techniques • Using animal research
• Using adoption and twin studies • Using observations
Issues and Debates: Ethical Issues: Humans
