Preliminary stuff
Hydrophibic vs. hydrophilic
-traits (philic is “extra”)
phobic:
synthesized whenever needed, diffused across
short or long distances (w/ carrier for the road)
intracellular or transmembrane receptors
slower or rapid effects so helpful
philic:
needs to be in vesicles
exocytosis no diffusion picky bitch
only transmembrane receptors
rapid effects like the puny bitches they are
-chemical messengers
phobic: steroids (lipids)
philic: proteins, biogenic amines (except thyroid hormones),
-ligand receptor interaction (intra/transmembrane)
phobic: both
philic: only transmembrane
-forms of transport
phobic (+ small, water) = simple diffusion
philic (+ charged/polar, larger with a carrier) = facilitated
-hormones (lipid soluble/insoluble = hydrophobic/philic)
phobic (lipid soluble): cross cell membrane, bind intracellularly and alter
protein synthesis
philic (insoluble): can’t cross membrane thus interacts with receptors and
starts a cascade (eg. CAMP from ATP, DAG + IP3 => Ca2+)
Classes of biomolecules (plnc)
-lipids: HYDROPHOBIC; energy metabolism, structure, transport (membrane),
signallling
-carbs: hydrates of carbons, give rise to others; cell recognition (immunity), energy
metabolism (broken down)
-proteins: amino acid polymers; cell structure/function, singalling, enzymes
-nucleic acid: RNA/DNA; coding (MRNA), transmitting (MRNA), translating (RRNA)
classes of messengers: (PP SBEG)
-peptide:
small as few amino acids, big as few hundred
synthesized in rough ER, secreted based on Ca2+ (like nervous)
HYDROPHILIC: transmembrane receptors, rapid effects only
EG. growth hormone, natriuretic hormone (Kid. Na+ absorption)
-steroid:
synthesized from cholesterol
, come from gonads/placenta, adrenal cortex
named from functions, origins
HYDROPHOBIC: synthesized on demand, diffused, carriers for long distance
w/ a hydrophobic region to bind, either type of receptor (in/out)
EG. mineralocorticoid (ion balance), glucocorticoid (gluc. metabolic)
-biogenic amine:
made from amino acids
have an amine group (NH2)
HYDROPHILIC except for sensible thyroid hormones
EG. thyroid hormones (T3/T4), catecholamines, serotonin
-purine:
Nucleotide, ribose sugar (anything nucelotide/side derived)
Includes adenosine, guanosine
Moved across by nucleoside transporters, secretory vesicles, to bind to
purinergic receptors
EG. AMP, ATP, GMP, GTP (mp, tp, a or g)
-fatty acid:
Lipid messengers made from phospholipids
Neurotransmitters; involved in inflammation and pain
natural ligand of cannabinoid receptors THC binds
Diffuse out, reach target cell, bind to receptors
EG prostaglandins: pain perception, targeted by painkillers
-gas:
Vasodilators mostly; nitric oxide, hydrogen sulphide, carbon monoxide
Neuro
Nernst equation
Types of neurotransmitters (ppaaag(others))
-peptide
-purines
-amino acid
-amine
-ACh
-gases
METABOTROPIC: norepineprhine, serotonin, oxytocin, proctolin, ACh, glut
(NSO was PAG!)
IONOTROPIC: ACh, glutamate (excitatory), gaba, glycine (inhibitory
(A and all the Gs)
, Sympathetic vs. parasympathetic
Similarities
● Ganglia are external to nervous system to both
● Preganglionic neurons release ACh in both
● Both have nicotinic (ionotropic) ACh receptors on postganglionic
Differences
● Length of neurons: preganglionic longer in SNS, postganglionic in PSNS
● Neurotransmitter released by postganglionic: noradrenaline by SNS
(increased heart rate, BP, vasoconstriction) ACh by PSNS (maintaining rest
and digest state through action )
● Receptors on target tissues: alpha/beta adrenergic in SNS, muscarinic
(metabotropic ACh in PSNS)
Important to note: sympathetic has sympathetic chain, where adrenal medulla acts as
ganglia (only time when post ganglionic isnt longer), sweat glands/skin/adrenal
medulla/blood vessels are only innervated by sympathetic
Muscle structure
Protein filaments > myofibril > muscle fiber > surrounded by endomysium, encased
by epimysium
Thick myosin, thin actin; A band thick, I band thin, z bands anchor, M line middle of A
(where thick anchored by titin)
Excitation contraction coupling
Motor endplate (sarcolema) depolarizes (Na+/K+ channels) > AP fires
AP spreads into T tubules, gets to sarcoplasmic reticulum > calcium released from
stores
Ca2+ binds to troponin, pulls away tropomyosin, exposes mysosin binding sites on
actin;
Myosin has hydrolyzed ATP in head; released to contract, when new ATP binds and
is hydrolyzed myosin will return to rest
Ca2+ returns to lumen, tropomyosin covers sites again
Endo
Insect hormones
JH = growth, PTH = molting
Endocrine reflexes
Humoral = changes in composition (eg +/- calcium), neural (neurotransmitter
release), hormonal (by other hormones)
hormones of the following organs:
-hypothalamus: **PEPTIDES**
Prolactin releasing/inhibiting (PRL)
Thyrotropin releasing (PRL, TSH)
Corticotropin releasing (ACTH)
Hydrophibic vs. hydrophilic
-traits (philic is “extra”)
phobic:
synthesized whenever needed, diffused across
short or long distances (w/ carrier for the road)
intracellular or transmembrane receptors
slower or rapid effects so helpful
philic:
needs to be in vesicles
exocytosis no diffusion picky bitch
only transmembrane receptors
rapid effects like the puny bitches they are
-chemical messengers
phobic: steroids (lipids)
philic: proteins, biogenic amines (except thyroid hormones),
-ligand receptor interaction (intra/transmembrane)
phobic: both
philic: only transmembrane
-forms of transport
phobic (+ small, water) = simple diffusion
philic (+ charged/polar, larger with a carrier) = facilitated
-hormones (lipid soluble/insoluble = hydrophobic/philic)
phobic (lipid soluble): cross cell membrane, bind intracellularly and alter
protein synthesis
philic (insoluble): can’t cross membrane thus interacts with receptors and
starts a cascade (eg. CAMP from ATP, DAG + IP3 => Ca2+)
Classes of biomolecules (plnc)
-lipids: HYDROPHOBIC; energy metabolism, structure, transport (membrane),
signallling
-carbs: hydrates of carbons, give rise to others; cell recognition (immunity), energy
metabolism (broken down)
-proteins: amino acid polymers; cell structure/function, singalling, enzymes
-nucleic acid: RNA/DNA; coding (MRNA), transmitting (MRNA), translating (RRNA)
classes of messengers: (PP SBEG)
-peptide:
small as few amino acids, big as few hundred
synthesized in rough ER, secreted based on Ca2+ (like nervous)
HYDROPHILIC: transmembrane receptors, rapid effects only
EG. growth hormone, natriuretic hormone (Kid. Na+ absorption)
-steroid:
synthesized from cholesterol
, come from gonads/placenta, adrenal cortex
named from functions, origins
HYDROPHOBIC: synthesized on demand, diffused, carriers for long distance
w/ a hydrophobic region to bind, either type of receptor (in/out)
EG. mineralocorticoid (ion balance), glucocorticoid (gluc. metabolic)
-biogenic amine:
made from amino acids
have an amine group (NH2)
HYDROPHILIC except for sensible thyroid hormones
EG. thyroid hormones (T3/T4), catecholamines, serotonin
-purine:
Nucleotide, ribose sugar (anything nucelotide/side derived)
Includes adenosine, guanosine
Moved across by nucleoside transporters, secretory vesicles, to bind to
purinergic receptors
EG. AMP, ATP, GMP, GTP (mp, tp, a or g)
-fatty acid:
Lipid messengers made from phospholipids
Neurotransmitters; involved in inflammation and pain
natural ligand of cannabinoid receptors THC binds
Diffuse out, reach target cell, bind to receptors
EG prostaglandins: pain perception, targeted by painkillers
-gas:
Vasodilators mostly; nitric oxide, hydrogen sulphide, carbon monoxide
Neuro
Nernst equation
Types of neurotransmitters (ppaaag(others))
-peptide
-purines
-amino acid
-amine
-ACh
-gases
METABOTROPIC: norepineprhine, serotonin, oxytocin, proctolin, ACh, glut
(NSO was PAG!)
IONOTROPIC: ACh, glutamate (excitatory), gaba, glycine (inhibitory
(A and all the Gs)
, Sympathetic vs. parasympathetic
Similarities
● Ganglia are external to nervous system to both
● Preganglionic neurons release ACh in both
● Both have nicotinic (ionotropic) ACh receptors on postganglionic
Differences
● Length of neurons: preganglionic longer in SNS, postganglionic in PSNS
● Neurotransmitter released by postganglionic: noradrenaline by SNS
(increased heart rate, BP, vasoconstriction) ACh by PSNS (maintaining rest
and digest state through action )
● Receptors on target tissues: alpha/beta adrenergic in SNS, muscarinic
(metabotropic ACh in PSNS)
Important to note: sympathetic has sympathetic chain, where adrenal medulla acts as
ganglia (only time when post ganglionic isnt longer), sweat glands/skin/adrenal
medulla/blood vessels are only innervated by sympathetic
Muscle structure
Protein filaments > myofibril > muscle fiber > surrounded by endomysium, encased
by epimysium
Thick myosin, thin actin; A band thick, I band thin, z bands anchor, M line middle of A
(where thick anchored by titin)
Excitation contraction coupling
Motor endplate (sarcolema) depolarizes (Na+/K+ channels) > AP fires
AP spreads into T tubules, gets to sarcoplasmic reticulum > calcium released from
stores
Ca2+ binds to troponin, pulls away tropomyosin, exposes mysosin binding sites on
actin;
Myosin has hydrolyzed ATP in head; released to contract, when new ATP binds and
is hydrolyzed myosin will return to rest
Ca2+ returns to lumen, tropomyosin covers sites again
Endo
Insect hormones
JH = growth, PTH = molting
Endocrine reflexes
Humoral = changes in composition (eg +/- calcium), neural (neurotransmitter
release), hormonal (by other hormones)
hormones of the following organs:
-hypothalamus: **PEPTIDES**
Prolactin releasing/inhibiting (PRL)
Thyrotropin releasing (PRL, TSH)
Corticotropin releasing (ACTH)
