HIP - Final Exam 2023 with 100% correct questions and answers

What is the role of selective attention in decision making? Critical role in selecting which cues (information) to process (of higher perceived value) and which to filter out. This selection is based on past-experiences (long-term memory) and requires effort or attentional resources. What is diagnosis? Process of using cues to form understanding, awareness, or assessment of the "situation" confronting the decision maker What sources is diagnosis (assessment) base on? 1) External cues filtered by selective attention 2) Long-term memory Name the four HIP components whose limitations effect quality of diagnosis. 1) Perception: estimating cues 2) Attention: selecting and integrating cues 3) Long-term Memory: background knowledge to establish possible hypotheses (representativeness heuristic; availability heuristic) 4) Working Memory: cognitive workbench for updating and revising hypotheses based on new information (anchoring heuristic; overconfidence bias; confirmation bias) Define working memory Temporary, attention demanding store used to retain new information until we use it (e.g., telephone number until dialed) What are the three elements of working memory? 1) Phonological loop (information in linguistic form) 2) Visuo-spatial sketch pad (information in analog, spatial form) 3) Central executive (controls activity, assign attentional resources to other subsystems and resist distractions) How does multiple resource theory relate to disruption in working memory? Verbal working memory more disrupted by verbal/sequential information than spatial tasks Spatial working memory more disrupted by spatial information than verbal/sequential tasks What are the implications of environmental information and concurrent tasks for working memory? Irrelevant environmental information and relevant concurrent tasks that will amplify should be minimized What are the four roles of the central executive? 1) Temporarily hold and manipulate information stored in long-term memory 2) Change retrieval strategies from long-term memory 3) Coordinate performance on multiple tasks 4) Attend selectively to stimuli What is the stimulus/central-processing/response compatibility principle? Best association of display formats to codes of working memory used by task Stimulus = display modality (auditory and visual) C = Central processing to verbal and/or spatial R = Response modality (manual and/or vocal) Auditory Spatial = Sound localization and pitch Auditory Verbal = Speech Visual Verbal = Print Spatial Verbal = Analog Pictures Define echoing and iconic memory. Which has slower decay? Echoic memory = short term sensory store that retains auditory information for 3-4 s) Iconic memory = short term sensory store that retains visual information Echoic memory has slower decay Draw and describe the effect of retention interval on recall from working memory As the number of items increases from 1 to 7 the slope of the curve increases sharply such that the recall value (y-axis) drops to zero at a shorter retention interval (seconds; x-axis) What is a chunk? A set of adjacent stimulus units tied together by associations in individual's long-term memory (e.g., words, number sequences) What is parsing? Physically separating information into likely chunks to facilitate chunking What is interference? Lost information in working memory (material to be remembered) due to the effect of information learned at another time What is proactive interference? the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information When activity previously engaged in prior to incoming information disrupts its retrieval What is retroactive interference? the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information How does similarity of information impact interference? Information that is similar in content can increase the degree of retroactive and proactive interference What are the five implication of memory interference and confusion for system design? When design coding systems designer should: 1) avoid creating codes with large strings of similar-sounding chunks 2) use different codes (verbal vs spatial) for different sources of information 3) ensure that intervals before, during, and after storage are free of unnecessary activity that uses same code (spatial or verbal) and same material (e.g., all digits) as stored information 4) use different scales or scale labels for attributes, or separate unique spatial locations for objects that must be monitored 5) Conduct working memory analysis What is the episodic buffer? 4th component of working memory Links information across working memory components to form integrated units of visual, spatial, and verbal information with time sequencing (or chronological ordering) How long does verbal information last if not rehearsed? 10-15 seconds What is shape coding? Can recognize word by shape of lower case letters What are the design guidelines for working memory by characteristic? 1) Different WM components = Avoid overlap (e.g., spoken directions rather than analog map display while driving) 2) Phonological store = Avoid overlap/interference 3) Central executive = Avoid overlap: can't do 2 controlled processing tasks well 4) Limited span = Support chunking, parse messages (e.g., 1-800-555-HELP) 5) Reduce Interference = Train similar tasks separately What are the two types of knowledge? 1) Declarative knowledge - Facts about domain or experience 2) Procedural knowledge - How to do something What are the two types of declarative knowledge? 1) Semantic knowledge - Facts about a domain 2) Episodic knowledge - Facts about an experience What are the characteristics of declarative knowledge? - Usually can be verbalized/written - More accurate with study or rehearsal - Levels of processing are important What are the characteristics of procedural knowledge? - Implicit; often not easily verbalized (e.g., riding bike, driving car) - Better off with practice and performance List the theories of knowledge organization 1) Similarity theory (category hierarchy, prototypes, exemplar) 2) Hierarchical theory = concept of inheritance 3) Spreading Activation = framework that describe an aspect of world 4) Mental Model = mental structure reflecting user's understanding of environment/system Describe the relationship between level of processing and the probability of recall Linear relationship with level of processing on x-axis and probability of recall on y-axis As move from case - rhyme - semantic level of processing the probability of recall increases (better transfer form short-term memory to long-term memory) What are the three levels of processing in Norman's taxonomy of memory? 1) Memory for arbitrary things (e.g., passwords) 2) Memory for meaningful relationships 3) Memory through explanation What are the characteristics of Norman's memory for arbitrary things? 1) No particular relationship to each other/anything 2) Requires rote learning - difficult, time and effort consuming 3) When problems arise, memorized sequence gives no hint to what has gone wrong and how to fix the problem What are the characteristics of Norman's memory for meaningful relationships? 1) Can related to knowledge that we already have (i.e., can be understood, interpreted, integrated, with previously acquired material) 2) No explanatory and thus no predictive power (e.g., mnemonics, names of Greek gods and planets) What are the characteristics of Norman's memory through explanation? 1) Can be derived from some explanatory mechanism (e.g., mental model to predict and test hypothesis) 2) Details can be derived when needed (e.g., unexpected situations) 3) Designers should provide users with appropriate models What are the knowledge elicitation models? 1) Scaling techniques = Pairwise comparison, rank ordering, ranch model 2) Protocol analysis = Experts "think aloud" as perform tasks 3) Interviews 4) Observation of experts 5) Structured knowledge elicitation = Elicit expert on specific work activities/scenarios 6) Documentation of analysis technique = Review systems documentation procedures List and describe the types of retrieval 1) Recall = generate information from memory 2) Recognition = classify information as seen/unseen (e.g., eye-witness) 3) Event Memory = What is prospective memory? Form of memory that involves remembering to perform a planned action or recall a planned intention at some future point in time. Prospective memory tasks are common in daily life and range from the relatively simple to extreme life-or-death situations. What is situation awareness? The perception of critical information in environment (what?), the comprehension of their meaning (so what?), and projection of their status into the future (what now?) What? So What? What Now? What are the three level of situation awareness? 1) Perception (noticing) 2) Comprehension (understanding) 3) Projection (anticipation) Generally, how is information organized in long-term memory? Not as random collection of facts Information has specific structure and organization that defines how items are associated with one another Why is understanding the organization of knowledge important? Systems design to have their features congruent with an operator's organization of knowledge will allow the operator to use knowledge from a domain What is the difference between novices and expert's use of mental models? Experts demonstrate greater flexibility in use of their mental models (easier to switch among models) What are the differences in decay between perceptual-motor (procedural) and cognitive/digital skills (declarative)? Perceptual-motor (procedural) skills have slow and little decay while cognitive/digital skill have faster decay List the steps for robust sequence of practice 1) Perceptual-motor/procedural before cognition/declarative skill training What is command line vs a GUI an example of? Recall (command line) vs Recognition (GUI) What helps recall performance? Retrieval cues Is performance better in recall or recognition? Recognition A checklist is an example of what? Method for providing retrieval cues that help in recall of procedural steps from LTM What is a secondary benefit of retrieval cues? Other related associations are likely to be forgotten If you follow checklist items, less likely to associate cues with innappopriate actions in the future What are the two types of biases for event memory (episodic memory)? 1) Memory Loss = Loss of knowledge about the event (forgetting) 2) Memory Reconstruction = Tendency to include new information that did not occur What is the best sequence of practice for task that has both procedural (perceptual-motor) and declarative (cognitive) components? Better to train the procedural component first because skill retention in this case due more robust nature of perceptual-motor skill "anchors" cognitive component What are the individual differences for skill retention? 1) Faster learners tend to show better retention than slow learners due to different chunking skills 2) Larger working memory shown to improve ability to utilize feedback during learning What is the formula for the training effectiveness ratio (TER)? TER = amount of time saving/time in training program Example Control group = 10 hours Training group spent 12 hours (4 hr in simulator, 8 hr in real task) TER = (10-8)/4 = 0.5 What is the formula for transfer? Transfer = (time_control - time_transfer)/time_control = savings/time_control Why is difficult to achieve a TER of 1.0? Training is never fully representative of target task What is the relationship between expertise and value of training? As become expert training offers diminishing returns How are TER scores interpreted? TER 1 = training for transfer group more efficient than for control group (I.e., training program is better than training on real system) TER = 0 = training program is worthless (i.e., negative transfer) 0 TER 1 = training program is worth considering depending on importance of safety and the cost/availability What is the formula for training cost ratio (TCR)? TCR = training cost in real task environment per unit time/ training cost in training program per unit time How do you determine if the a program is cost effective? TER x TCR 1 = program is cost effective What are the types of transfer? 1) Positive transfer = training program and target task are similar 2) Zero transfer = Extreme differences between program and task 3) Negative transfer = Training program similar in some respects, different in others leading to improper expectations What is negative transfer? When two situations have similar stimulus elements but different response or strategic components Especially true if new and old response are opposite/incompatible Negative transfer can be serious concern for an operator who has to switch back and forth between two systems What is naive realism? Misplaced faith in realistic information (e.g., think that displays that are more realistic are better when in fact can have negative impact on performance) What are the human factors implications of training program design? 1) What are the merits of the training program? At what cost? - % transfer; TER; TCR; - Considerations: effectiveness, safety & cost 2) What system fidelity is necessary for the program? - Naive realism can produce ineffective training - Considerations: task components and cost 3) What types of transfer will occur with the training? - Similarities and differences in stimulus and response to legacy system - Negative training when switching between legacy and new systems What are the features of of decision making (dependent variables when studying decision making)? 1) Complexity of choices = binary vs multiple choice 2) Uncertainty of consequences (probability) = Unpleasant or costly outcomes = risk 3) Familiarity and Expertise = faster but not necessarily better decisions 4) Time = two important roles: one shot vs evolving decision and impact of time pressure (added stress and risk) What are the three classes of decision making? 1) Rational/Normative 2) Naturalistic 3) Cognitive/Information processing What does Rational/Normative decision making ask? What is the choice that will, in the long run, lead to the highest expected value What does naturalistic decision making ask? How do experts/people make real decisions in real world? What questions does cognitive/information processing model ask? What factors distort or bias different stages (cue perception, diagnosis, choice) of information processing for decision making? What are the models that attempt to classify what characterizes "good decision" making? 1) Expect value = decision based on maximizing value 2) Good outcome = decision based on outcome being "good" 3) Expertise = Experts produce good decisions What are the problems with the "Expected value" model? 1) Unrealistic under time pressure 2) Impossible to account for every value/outcome accurately What are the problems with the "good outcome" model of decision making? 1) Evidence of bad decisions leading to good outcomes 2) Unrealistic given hindsight bias (only label decision as good or bad once we know the outcome) What are the problems with the "expertise" model of decision making? 1) Experts can make poor decisions 2) Evidence of disagreement between experts What are the four elements of information processing that influence quality of assessment and diagnosis? 1) Perception (estimate cue) 2) Attention (selecting and integrating information provided by cues) 3) Long-term memory (providing background knowledge to establish possible hypotheses or beliefs 4) Working memory ("workbench" for updating and revising hypotheses or beliefs on basis of new information Which cues are people good at estimating? - Mean and variance of set of observations - Mid-range (poor at extremes) Name the three systematic biases in perception and estimation 1) Means and proportions 2) Projections (extrapolating trends) 3) Randomness What are the characteristics of percepting and estimating means and proportions? - Good at mid-range (0.05 - 0.95) means; poor at extremes - Our estimates tend to be conservative biased away from extremes - Tendency to overestimate frequency of rare events from descriptions (e.g., people show little difference in behavior when odds shift from 1/1000 to 1/10,000) - Confuse possibility of winning with probability of winning What are the characteristic of decision making extrapolating trends? - Good at linear trends - Poor at non-linear trends - trend to convert non-linear trends to linear trends resulting in underestimation human What is the gambler's fallacy? People tend to think that "random" implies heavy bias toward alternation between the two outcomes (e.g., tend to avoid sequence of HHH or TTT when flipping coins) What are the three important properties of cues? 1) Cue Diagnosticity = How much evidence a cue should offer regarding an hypothesis (confirming or refuting) 2) Cue reliability or credibility = Likelihood that cue can be believed 3) Physical features = Conspicuousness or salience of the cue impact selective attention and subsequent processing it receives What is the formula to calculate the cue information value? How should this value be interpreted? Cue Information Value = Diagnosticity x Reliability Value = 1.0 then that single cue is all that needs to be processed to make error free diagnosis Value 1.0 = need multiple cues What cue process presents a major challenge to selective attention and memory? Process of attending to and integrating multiple cues located at different times and/or delivered at different times along various sensory channels What are the major cue vulnerabilities? 1) Cues are missing 2) Too many cues; information overload 3) Cues have differing saliency 4) Cues are not differentially weighted How do good decision makers handle missing cues? Realize that cues are missing and seek out information to fill gap Describe the effect of too many cues - In theory, considering more cues can lead to increase in likelihood of correct diagnosis. However, in practice when number of cues goes past two people do not make efficient use of additional sources - Attending to more sources increases confidence but does not increase accuracy - Naturally seek more cues than we need and maybe can attend to What impact does the salience of a cue have? Salience of cue influences the the extend it will attended to (ease of processing) and weight in information integration Tend to overweight most salient cue How should designers use absence of signals? Never use absence of signal always give signal What aspects of long-term memory influence how cues are integrated? 1) Cue correlation 2) expectancy What is the foundation for the representativeness cue? Cues for diagnostic state are often correlated (e.g., bad weather diagnosed by cloud and low pressure, flu diagnosed by nausea, fever, aches) What are heuristics? experience-based techniques for problem solving, learning, and discovery What is the representativeness heuristic? - People diagnose or chose a hypothesis by matching the set of available cues/evidence to the set of characteristic representative or prototypical of the hypothesis (stored in LTM) - Cue-hypothesis match based on correlational reasoning as opposed to casual When are there problems using the representativeness heuristic? - When cues yield ambiguous choice of hypotheses, people often fail to consider base rate (probability that hypothesis might be true) - Example: Patient has 4 out 5 symptoms of disease X and 3 out 5 symptoms of disease Y. Physician tests for X even though it has much lower probability of prevalence What explains why people don't adequately consider base rate when using the representative heuristic? People pay more attention to the salient, representative strength of evidence than they do to reliability of evidence - Distorting effect of salience or accessilbity in decision making When are people more likely to use probability to determine the most likely hypothesis? In the absence of physical evidence or when physical evidence is ambiguous What is the availability heuristic? Ease with instances or occurrences (of hypothesis) come to mind Convenient means of approximating prior probability (more frequent events and conditions experienced are recalled more easily) What 3 factors influence the availability of hypothesis other than true or experienced frequency? 1) Recency: more recent events are easier to recall from long-term memory 2) Simplicity: hypothesis that is easier to represent in memory is more available 3) Elaboration/Detail: Events stored in greater detail are believed to occur with greater frequency What is the anchoring heuristic? When additional evidence is sough or arrives not all hypotheses are treated equal What is the primacy effect? Bias our belief revisions in favor of initially chosen hypothesis (as if we ache attached a mental anchor) When are recency and primacy dominant? - Primacy is dominant when information is simple and integration calls for a single judgment - Recency is dominant when beliefs are updated over time as more complex sources are considered In processing beliefs over time, what two characteristics can work against the most accurate estimates of the "truth"? 1) Anchoring heuristic 2) Confirmation bias Define confirmation bias Tendency for people to seek or select information that confirms tentative hypothesis or beliefs Why does confirmation bias occur? 1) Greater cognitive difficulty processing negative information 2) Significant cognitive effort to change hypotheses 3) Motivated to support one's belief 4) Motivated to consequences/outcomes of one decision over another more logical decision 5) Sometimes subsequent influences outcomes, that in turn reaffirm the initial hypothesis (self-fulfilling prophecy) What is overconfidence bias? People are overconfident in their state of knowledge or beliefs We are overconfident in accuracy of our memory, facts of general knowledge, recall & recognition What are the consequences of overconfidence bias? 1) Less likely to seek additional information (that may refute leading hypothesis) What is the compensatory process for certain decisions? - Certain decision on choosing between objects should be based on comparison of all attributes following a normative approach - Strong attributes compensate weak ones in decision making - Exhaustive comparison is cognitively/resource demanding List the steps in the compensatory process method for decision making 1) Rank order/weight the importance of each attribute (higher number = greater importance) 2) Assess the value of each object on each attribute (higher number = greater value) 3) For each object compute sum of the products [value x importance] 4) Chose the object with the highest sum of products What is satisficing decision making? Just pick an object that is "good enough" (is not too low on any of the important attributes) What is the elimination by aspects (EBA) heuristic? 1) Rank order importance of attributes or aspects 2) Eliminate object that does not lie within the top few along this aspect 3) Reduce the remaining few "finalists" List the expected value method steps for making uncertain decisions (maximizing expected value) 1) Assign value (positive or negative) to each possible outcome 2) Multiply each [outcome value] x [probability of state of world] 3) Sume these [PxV] products across each row (decision option) 4) Choose the option with the highest sum of products Why is the expected value model not always feasible/ideal? 1) Minimizing the maximum loss is more important (e.g., outcome cost/loss beyond a threshold perceived to be "irrecoverable"; fire insurance) 2) Quantifying certain objectives is difficult (e.g., safety, cost of life) 3) Objective function is difficult/resource-intensive to develop (e.g., subjective value of money is non-linear, probability of earthquake) 4) Objectives and probabilities are uncertain or inaccurate/misleading Which of the following approaches to eyewitness identification tends to reduce false alarms? A) sequential lineup B) a simultaneous lineup C) inform the witness that suspect might not be in the lineup D) post-identification suggestions C The_________________ measure of eye movements provides an index of the processing resources required for information extraction from a single source: A) dwell time B) saccade latency C) nearest neighbor D) speed A In SDT terms, what is the man reason that alarm and alert systems have a low beta setting? A) to avoid the "cry-wolf effect" B) the cost of misses is typically greater than the cost of false alarms C) the base rate of dangerous incidents is high D) tt is an inherent characteristic of automated detection systems B A key contribution of signal detection theory is that it: A) predicts the response criterion for a particular individual B) predicts the sensitively for a particular observer in a particular context C) makes clear distinction between response bias and sensitivity D) shows that sensitivity is less important than response bias C "Line-of-sight-ambiguity" refers to A) how accurately we perceive the relative distances of objects when they are aligned along our line sight B) whether we can tell if one object is in front of another when they are aligned our line of sight C) whether we can tell if one object is above another when they are at different distances D) none of the above Time line analysis computes mental workload as the _____________ of time required (TR) and time available (TA) to perform a task. A) ratio B) sum C) product d) difference A What factor affects edge rate but not global optical flow? A) traffic circles B) systematic changes in texture density C) Splay D) It is impossible to affect edge rate without affecting global optical flow D An emergent feature is a: A) global property of a set of stimuli that is not evident when each is seen in isolation B) unit that is processed quicker than others C) local property of single stimulus that is evident when seen as part of a set of stimuli D) property which is used to recognize words by their shape A A general finding is that _____________ ongoing tasks (OT) are more resistant to being interrupted: A) visual B) stable C) procedural D) auditory D Generally, switching between which kings of tasks will take longer: A) from digit class to a letter class B) from a letter class to a digit C) from a digit task based on one mapping rule to another D) from one visual task C In the Stroop task, which condition will produce the slowest response times? A) the word blue in blue ink B) a row of four Xs (XXXX) is blue link C) the word red in blue ink D) the word red in red ink C Which of the following situations would best represent the principle of pictorial realism: A) displaying altitude using a circular format B) displaying altitude with low altitudes on the left and high altitudes on the right C) display altitude with low altitudes at the top of the display D) display altitude with high altitudes at top of the display D It is useful to distinguish between two perceptual systems direct and indirect. Which of the following is not a characteristic of direct perception: A) uses ambient (peripheral) vision B) uses dorsal pathways C) is ecological D) requires cognitive inference ... We can talk of (at least) three representations when a human interacts with a physical system: the physical system itself, the display representation, and the user's internal representation or mental model. Display compatibility refers to a compatibility between: A) the mental model and the display representation B) the display representation and the physical representation C) the physical representation and the mental model D) the physical system and the internal representation A Ecological compatibility emphasizes the importance of the relationship between: A) the internal representation and the display representation B) the display representation and training or experience C) display representation and the physical system D) the mental model and the physical system D We dislike _________________ something more than we like ________________ something Losing; gaining Draw the loss and gain curves Coordinate plots gain curve increases more slowly than objective Loss curve declines more steeply than objective loss What is the endowment effect? Willing to charge more for selling a product (loss) than willing to pay for buying the product What is temporal discounting? Tendency of people to make decisions or chose options that maximize the short term gains (an immediate positive experience) rather than postponing them (a delayed utility) for an option that may result in equal or even greater long term gains Describe the individual differences for temporal discounting High individual differences Some evidence that people who are better able to postpone gain are more successful What are the four major aspects of human biases when we compare objective probability to subjective probability? 1) Overestimate the probability of very rare events (e.g., people buy insurance, sure money loss, in order to avoid risky loss of rare event) 2) Underestimate the probability of extremely rare events (may be because subjective probability is derived from experience rather than description) 3) Insensitive to changes at low probabilities (less than about 0.05; sluggish beta and ignorance of base rates = representativeness heuristic) 4) Underestimate (true) probability for most of range What is the framing effect? Peoples preference for outcomes and objects change as function of how their description is framed Framing decision in terms of gains vs losses affects decision even for the same expected values E.g., 80% lean meat vs 20% fat meat What is the effect of framing choices between negatives? "Caught between a rock and a hard place" People more likely to choose the risky option What is effect of framing choices between positives? People more likely to choose the sure thing Describe preference reservals Preference (decision) reverses when the same option is framed between positives vs negatives Examples Decision to purchase insurance: sure lost of premium payments vs risky loss of disaster Decision by factory safety manager: sure expense of safety program vs risk fines and/or occurrence of preventable injury Name the strategies for encouraging safe decisions 1) Frame decision and culture strategically 2) Balance risk mitigation and resource consumption (cost of compliance) 3) Availability heuristic 4) Probability of distortions How can framing decisions and culture strategically be used to encourage safe decisions? - Encourage approach to choices between positives (sure gain vs risky gain) - Discourage approach to choices between negatives (sure loss vs risky loss) How can balancing risk mitigation and resource consumption be used to encourage safe decisions? - Low cost of compliance = easier to frame decision as choices between positivity's (i.e., salience in sure safety gain) - High cost of compliance = easier to frame decision as choices between negatives (I.e., salience in sure cost of safety actions) How can the availability heuristic be used to encourage safe decisions? Estimate of risk of behaving unsafely and cost of behaving safely is governed by how available the accident is in memory - Recent personal experience of an accident due to unsafe acts will increase the perceived frequency (subjective probability) of accidents - Mis-estimation of risks caused by the availability of publicized information (e.g., perceived risk of flying vs driving; death plan vs death by falls) - Avoiding the continuous (although minor) cost of compliance - How can probability distortions be used to encourage safe decisions? - Estimates of risk due to unsafe practice are influenced by the perceived severity of the accident (physical features and utilities) more than probability. (Abstract) - Powerful memory of extremely rare events; shift perception from "That's impossible!" To "IT could happen to me" What are the four reasons that precise behavior can result from imprecise knowledge? 1) Information is in the world 2) Precision not required 3) Natural constraints 4) Cultural constraints are present What are Andersons three stages of skill acquisition? 1) Cognitive stage = learner works from written or spoken instructions, declarative representation, learner rehearses instructions 2) Associative stage = go from to declarative to procedural, performance becomes more fluid and error free, verbalization goes 3) Autonomous stage = skill becomes more automated, person losses ability to verbally describe skill, performance overlearned What are Rasmussen's 3 three stages of skill acquisition? 1) Knowledge-based behavior = behaviors governed by formal analysis of the environment and testing of individual actions, feedback control 2) Rule-based behaviors = sequence of subroutines in a familiar work station typically controlled by rule or procedure derived empirically, feedfoward control based on rule 3) Skill-based behaviors = smooth, automated and highly integrated patterns of behaviors, feedforward controlling What is cognitive load theory? Attention demands or mental workload of a learner can be partitioned into three distinct elements: 1) intrinsic load, 2) Germane load, 3) extraneous load What is intrinsic load? Workload associated with a task (imposed by task) Higher the intrinsic of the task, more limited resources of the learner to perform the task What is Germane load? Workload associated with learning the task What is extraneous load? Workload unrelated to either the task or learning What are the strategies to mitigate intrinsic load? 1) Training support = provide worker support so that they learn correct skill performance then gradually remove support as they learn (e.g., "training wheels"). Helps avoid errors 2) Adaptive training = move difficulty level as learner moves through training (evidence that provides positive transfer) 3) Part task training = fractionation (by task breakdown) or segmentation (by time breakdown) of task What is a strategy for increasing Germane load? 1) Active learning = force learner to make choices which will make them more likely to retain information What are the strategies for mitigating extraneous load? 1) Add interruption to training so that they can focus better during real task 2) Use multimedia instruction