Psychology 101 2023 with verified questions and answers

Three Ways of Doing Psychology 1. Experimental 2. Teachers 3. Applied Critical Thinking 1. What is the source? 2. Is the claim reasonable? 3. What is the evidence? 4. Could bias contaminate the conclusion? -emotional bias -conformational bias 5. Does the reasoning avoid common fallacies (common sense)? 6. Does the issue require multiple perspectives? Six main viewpoints of Modern Psychology 1. Biological 2. Cognitive 3. Behavioral 4. Whole-person 5. Developmental 6. Sociocultural perspectives Empirical Investigation Research conducted, and conclusions reached, by means of observation and documentation. Theory Testable explanations for a broad set of facts or observations. Four Steps to the Scientific Method 1. Develop a Hypothesis. 2. Collect Objective Data. 3. Analyze the Results. Accept or Reject the Hypothesis. 4. Publish, Criticize or Replicate the Results. Five Types of Psychological Research 1. Experiments - variable 2. Correlational Studies - determine the nature of the relationship between variable but cannot determine the cause and effect. - "natural experiments" have already occurred by chance in the real world 3. Survey - determine peoples attitudes, preferences or other characteristics. - vulnerable to bias 4. Naturalistic Observations - Descriptive research technique in which the researcher assesses the behavior of subjects under studying their natural condition 5. Case Studies - Few individuals. - Focus on individuals with rare problems or unusual talents. Three Types of Correlations 1. Positive correlation 2. Negative correlation 3. Zero correlation Types of Neyrons 1. Sensory or afferent neurons - Carry messages towards the brain. 2. Interneurons - Carry messages between nerve cells (inside brain). - Carry messages between afferent and efferent. 3. Motor or efferent neurons - Carry messages away from brain. Central Nervous System (CNS) Composed of the brain and spinal chord. Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) Connects the central nervous system to the rest of the body. It consists of two divisions. Each has two subdivisions. Two parts of the Peripheral Nervous System 1. The Somatic Division of PNS - Somatic nervous system: Organ System - carries signals that regulate the internal organs that preform functions such as digestion, heart rate and reparation. - Afferent Sensory System: Motor System -sends messages to the brain and efferent sends messages to the muscles to act on them. 2. The Autonomic Division of PNS (carries signals that regulate internal organs) - Sympathetic division - "fight or flight" system, arouses the heart, lungs and other organs in stressful situations. - Parasympathetic division - returns body to its calm state The Cerebral Cortex - Two cerebral hemispheres are connected by fibers (corpus callosum) - Cerebrum accounts for 2/3 the brain's total mass. - Cerebral cortex is wrinkled to allow billions of cells to squeeze into the tight space inside the skull. Sensation and Perception 1. Information (stimuli) 2. Sensation (raw data is processed by sensory receptors) 3. Perception (sensations are processed in the brain and assigned meaning) Transduction Sensory process that converts the information carried by a physical stimulus such as light or sound waves into the form of neural messages. (physical - thought pattern) Vision Helps us to detect desired targets, threats and changes in our physical environment. Two Ways of Seeing Color Trichromatic Theory - Color is realized in the brain, color processing begins in the retina. - Light waves are sensed as red, green and blue. Opponent-Process Theory - Negative afterimages. - Phenomena that involves opponent or complementary colors. Hearing Helps with the ability to locate objects in a space. Position and Movement Kinesthetic - sense of body and movement Vestibular - keeps track of balance Smell Olfaction -physical process of odor detection Pheromones - Some animals communicate wit each other by secreting and detecting odoriferous substances. Taste Gustation - Chemical based physical process leading to taste. Gustation: Five Primary Qualities 1. Sweet 2. Sour 3. Bitter 4. Salty 5. Umami (protein rich foods) Skin Senses The skin is a sense organ containing nerve endings, that when stimulated, produce sensations of touch (pain, warmth and cold). Top-Down Processing Past experience, knowledge and expectation memory, motivation or cultural background guide our perceptions of objects or events. Bottom-Up Processing Stimuli/sensations that exert a strong influence on our perception. Perceptual Constancies Ability to see an object as being the same shape from different angles or distances. Color Constancy When the brain automatically corrects the color under different lighting conditions. Learning A process thorugh which experience produces a lasting change in behavior or mental processes. Habituation A simple form of learning in which the learning is not to respond. This skill is useful as a response to familiar stimuli. Classical Conditioning A behavioral process where a response becomes more frequent or more predictable in a given environment as a result of reinforcement. Reinforcement is typically a stimulus or reward for a desired response. Reinforcement An stimulus that follows and strengthens a response. -Positive -Negative Primary and Secondary Reinforcers Primary Reinforcer - reinforces an organisms innate need - ex: food, sex Secondary Reinforcer - money or grades Punishment An aversive consequence used to weaken the behavior that it follows. Cognitive Map Mental image that an organism uses to navigate through a familiar environment. Memory's Three Basic Tasks 1. Encoding Begins by requiring a selection of some stimulus event from the array of stimuli inputs and them making a preliminary classification. Then, mental label is attached. 2. Elaboration Connect a new concept with existing information. 3. Retrieval Accessing the info and bringing it to consciousness or in a form that influences behavior at an unconscious level. Memory Stages 1. Sensory Memory - few secs 2. Working Memory - 20 - 30 secs 3. Long-term Memory Chunk Any meaningful unit of information, consisting of whatever info can be organized into meaning. Maintenance Rehersal Keep information in working memory, driven its very short storage time. Elaborative Rehersal Connects new info with info previously stored. Procedural Memory - mental directions, well-practiced skills - mostly operates outside of conscious awareness ex: riding a bike Declarative Memory - stores facts, impressions, events - two subdivisions: episodic and semantic memory Episodic Memory - stores memories of events or "episodes" - temperal coding - info on when and where the episode took place Semantic Memory - basic meaning of words and concepts - acts as dictionary or database Schemas -clusters of knowledge in semantic memory that give us a context for understanding events. - depend upon culture and personal experience. Implicit and Explicit Memory Implicit Memory - can affect behavior without coming into full awareness. Explicit Memory - requires conscious awareness Retrieval Cue A stimulus used to bring a memory to consciousness. Recall - retrieval method in which one must reproduce previously presented info using minimal retrieval cues - ex: constructing an essay on a test Recognition - stimulus has been previously presented and must be identified - ex: multiple choice on test Mood Congruent Memory Moods can affect what is remembered. Frequency Theory states that pitch is determined by the vibrating frequency of the sound wave, basilar membrane and associated neural impulses theory of pitch that states that pitch is related to the speed of vibrations in the basilar membrane Optic Nerve the bundle of axons from ganglion cells leading to the visual cortex the nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain Transduction the process of transforming stimuli into neural signals Conversion of one form of energy into another. In sensation, the transforming of stimulus energies, such as sights, sounds, and smells, into neural impulses our brains can interpret. Sensation the process by which sensory organs in the eye, ear, nose, mouth, skin, and other tissues receive and detect stimuli Feeling Cornea the clear, outer layer of the eye that shields it from damage and focuses incoming light waves Saturation color purity A color's purity of hue; its intensity Afterimage an image that appears to linger in the visual field after it's stimulus or source is removed Trichromatic Theory the perception of color is the result of three types of cones, each sensitive to particular wavelengths in the red, green,and blue spectrum We have three types of cones in the retina: cones that detect blue, red and green. Cones are activated in different combinations to produce all colors. (doesn't explain afterimage or colorblindness) Figure-Ground a central principle of Gestalt psychology, involving the shifting of focus, as attention is focused on one object, all other features drop or recede into the background The organization of the visual field into objects (figures) that stand out from their surroundings (ground). Perception the organization and interpretation of sensory stimuli by the brain The act of becoming aware through the senses Light Adaptation Ability of the eyes to adjust to light after being in the dark Depth Perception the ability to perceive three-dimensional objects and judge distance the ability to perceive the world in three dimensions Binocular Cues information gathered from both eyes to help judge the depth and distance depth cues that are based on two eyes Gate Control Theory suggest that the perception of pain will either increase or decrease through the interaction of bio-psychological factors, signals are sent to "open or close gates" that control the neurological pathway Theory that explains how the nervous system blocks or allows pain signals to pass to the brain Dark Adaptation ability of the eyes to adjust to dark after exposure to brightness increased visual sensitivity that gradually develops when it get dark Blind Spot the location where the optic nerve exits the retina point in the retinal where the optic nerve leaves the retina so there are no rods or cones there Cones specialized light receptors responsible of the color and our ability to sense details Color vision Rods specialized light receptors in the retina that are responsible for sight when the light level is low, not sensitive to color, but useful for night vision What cells of the retina see in black and white and are used for night vision? Wavelength the distance between peaks (or trough) hue the color of an object determined by the wavelength of light it reflects Absolute threshold the weakest stimuli that can be detected 50% of the time Data-based processing taking basic sensory information about incoming stimuli and processing it for further interpretation. what cameras and video recorders do - collect data. "new experience, unplanned Kinesthia sensory system that conveys information about body position and movement Knowledge Based Processing drawing on past experiences and knowledge to understand and interpret sensory information. memory of past experience and knowledge to understand sensory information Accommodation the process by which the lens changes shape in order to focus on images near and far Gustation the sensation of taste Audition the sense of hearing Pitch the degree of which a sound is high or low determined by the frequency of its sound wave Frequency the number of sound waves passing a given point per second, higher frequency is perceived as higher pitch, and lower frequency is perceived as lower pitch Iris the muscle responsible for changing the size of the pupil Sensory Conflict Theory motion sickness Vestibular Sense the sense of balance and equilibrium Color Constancy objects are perceived as maintaining their color, even with changing sensory data Parapsychology the study of extrasensory perception (ESP) Size constancy an object is perceived as maintaining its size, regardless of the image projected in the retina Shape Constancy an object is perceived as maintaining its shape, regardless of the image projected on the retina Perceptual Constancy the tendency to perceive objects in our environment as stable in terms of shape, size, and color, regardless of changes in the sensory data received Extrasensory perception (ESP) the purported ability to obtain information about the world without any sensory stimuli Perceptual set the tendency to perceive stimuli in a specific manner based on past experience and expectation Illusion a perception in-congruent with sensory data Feature Detectors neurons in the visual cortex specialized in detecting specific features of the visual experience, such as angles, lines, and movements Weber's Law the law stating that each of the five senses has its' own constant ratio determining difference thresholds Place Theory states that pitch corresponds to the location of the vibrating hair cells along the cochlea Gestalt the natural tendency for the brain to organize stimuli into a whole, rather than perceiving the parts and pieces Retina Disparity the binocular cue that uses the difference between the images the two eyes see to determine the distance of the objects Cochlea fluid-filled,small shape organ of the inner ear lined with the basilar membrane Photoreceptors cells that absorb light energy and turn it into chemical and electrical signals for the brain to process Retina the layer of the eye that contains photo receptor cells and location for the transduction of light energy into the neural activity Proprioceptors specialized nerve endings primarily located in the muscles and joints that provide information about body location and orientation Difference Threshold the minimum difference between stimuli that can be noticed 50% of the time. "noticeable difference" Amplitude the height of the wave,(the distance from midpoint to peak or from midpoint to the trough) of the wave. Taller height, the brighter the light Monocular Cue depth and distance cues that require the use of only one ye Sensory Adaptation sensory receptors tend to become less sensitive to constant stimuli Constant stimulation of a sense can produce adaptation (ex: putting on socks and not feeling them throughout the day.) Convergence a bionocular cue used to judge distance and depth based on the tension of the muscles that direct where eyes are focusing When objects are closer to you, it requires greater eye strain to see objects closer to you Signal Detection Theory a theory explaining how various factors influence our ability to detect weak signals in the environment A theory of perception in which internal (psychological) and external (environmental) context both play a role in our perception of stimuli. Temperaments Sanguine (air), Choleric (fire), Melancholic (earth), Phlegmatic (water) Structuralism Willhelm Wundt(usa) & Edward Titchener(german) The building blocks or structure of mental functioning. "Is the theory that elements of human culture must be understood in terms of their relationship to a larger, overarching system or structure." Model : To use introspection to probe responses to stimuli. Functionalism William James It is how the mind evolved to help people adapt to the environment. Based on Darwin's work of Natural Selection. "Refers to a psychological philosophy that considers mental life and behavior in terms of active adaptation to the person's environment." Model : Animal studies Behaviorism John Watson The study of observable behaviors. "Psychology that confines itself to the study of observable and quantifiable aspects of behavior and excludes subjective phenomena, such as emotions or motives." Pavlov & Skinner Pavlov used his data in much of behaviorism ( pair white coat with food, when white coat is seen, it signals or indicates food is coming) Skinner- actions controlled by rewards and punishment. Important to learning, conditioning, rewards and punishment. Cognitive Behaviorism Combined with conditioning and cognition into understanding behavior. (Reactions and feelings to punishments) Expressed behavior. Gestalt Psychology An approach that focuses on immediate experience and awareness to help clients rebuild thinking, feeling, and acting into connected whose; emphasizes the integration of fragmented experiences. "Tries to understand the laws of our ability to acquire and maintain meaningful perceptions in an apparently chaotic world." Is a theory of mind of the Berlin School of experimental psychology. (Prisoners vs Guards) Psychoanalytic Psychology Sigmund Freud "Freud believed that people could be cured by making conscious their unconscious thoughts and motivations, thus gaining "insight". The aim of psychoanalysis therapy is to release repressed emotions and experiences, i.e. make the unconscious conscious." Behavior was influenced by Thoughts, Impulse, & Desires. Mechanism 1. Repression 2. Denial 3. Projection 4. Displacement 5. Regression 6. Sublimation Neofreudians "Psychiatrists and psychologists were a group of loosely linked American theorists of the mid-twentieth century, who were all influenced by Sigmund Freud, but who extended his theories, often in social or cultural directions." Psychodynamics is an approach to psychology that emphasizes systematic study of the psychological forces that underlie human behavior, feelings, and emotions and how they might relate to early experience. Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs 1. Psychological- Breathing, food, sex, water, etc. 2. Safety- Security, Health, Employment 3. Love Belongings- Frien Humanists Focus on subjective human experience (opposite of behaviorist). Free will is key: predecessors were deterministic. Psychological needs were love, self-esteem, creativity, etc. Humanism "An outlook or system of thought attaching prime importance to human rather than divine or supernatural matters" Psychologist "Are doctor ally-trained professionals who conduct research, perform testing, and evaluate and treat a full range of emotional and psychological challenges." Description In scientific research, the process of naming and classifying. Understanding In psychology, understanding is achieved when the cause of behavior can be stated. Prediction An ability to accurately forecast behavior. Control Altering conditions that influence behavior. WEIRD WEIRD is the phenomenon that plagues a lot of psychology and other social science studies: Their participants are overwhelming Western, educated, and from industrialized, rich, and democratic countries. Applied vs Basic Research Applied research is one type of research that is used to answer a specific question that has direct applications to the world. This is the type of research that solves a problem. Basic research is another type of research, and it is driven purely by curiosity and a desire to expand our knowledge. This type of research tends not to be directly applicable to the real world in a direct way, but enhances our understanding of the world around us. Experimental vs. Non Experimental An experiment is any study in which a treatment is introduced. A new method of teaching. A non-experimental study does not introduce a treatment. Comparing opinions from natural groups. IV & DV The IV is the variable that is controlled and manipulated by the experimenter; whereas the DV is not manipulated, instead the DV is observed or measured for variation as a presumed result of the variation in the IV. Experimental Group An experimental group is the group in a scientific experiment where the experimental procedure is performed. This group is exposed to the independent variable being tested and the changes observed and recorded. Control Group A control group is a group separated from the rest of the experiment where the independent variable being tested cannot influence the results. "birth" of psychology 1800s john stuart mill argued psychology should be a science of observation and of experiment. Wilhelm Wundt's lab, when, where, why significant 1879 built first lab Germany. interested in studying the structure of conciseness (became structuralism) history of psychology ... structuralism (Titchener) Edward Titchener (Wundt's student) structuralism Conscious experience can be broken down into its basic underlying components Used introspection to study consciousness Sought to identify the structures (basic building blocks) of mental life via introspection and determine how these elements combine to form experiences. functionalism (James) james: Wrote one of the first textbooks on psychology. Argued the mind consisted of a stream of consciousness that could not be frozen in time, broken down and analyzed functionalism Studied how the mind functions to enable humans and other animals to adapt to their environment. psychoanalysis (Freud) Developed psychodynamic theory and psychoanalysis Focused on unconscious processes Believed that the unconscious contains thoughts, memories, and desires that are hidden but still influence current behavior. behaviorism (Pavlov, Watson, Skinner Pavlov: classical conditioning Watson: early behaviorism/classical condition. Should focus on studying behavior. Little Albert. Skinner: theory of operant conditioning. Advocate for behaviorism. Resisted study of the unseen. humanism (Rogers, Maslow) Maslow: fouder of the humanistic psychology. known for maslow hierarchy of needs. Rodgers: client centered therapy first APA award free will, self-actulization and human nature as anturally positive and growth-seeking Hierarchy of needs Bottom to top Physiological needs: food, water, Warmth, rest Safety needs: security, safety belongingness and love needs: Intimate relationships, friends esteem needs: prestige and feeling of accomplishment self actulization: achieving one's ful potential, including creative activities. needs and safety=basic needs love and esteem=psychological needs self-fulfilment needs cognitive (Miller) Cognitive psychology: the study of how people think, learn, and remember thinking, perceving, problem solving, memory, language, and information processing miller: launches cognitive revolution Brain chemistry; hundreds of substances play critical roles in mental activity and behavior, not just a few neuroscience Localization of function: Some brain areas are important for specific feelings, thoughts, and actions Many brain regions work together to produce behavior and mental activity evolutionary psychology useful for considering whether behaviors and physical mechanisms are adaptive cultural influences Social interaction gives rise to culture, which is transmitted from one generation to the next through learning Culture affects thought and behavior (e.g., music/food preferences, ways of expressing emotion, tolerance of body odors) Cultural "rules" reflect adaptive solutions worked out by previous generations Cultural neuroscience studies the ways that cultural variables affect the brain, the mind, genes, and behavior Culture Enduring values, beliefs, behaviors, and traditions that are shared by a large group of people and passed from one generation to the next. biopsychosocial model unifying and integrative model views biological processes, psychological factors, and social forces as interrelated influences that interact with the seven major perspectives Minorities in psychology Between 1920 and 1966 Only 0.2% of the PhDs from the most prestigious universities went to African Americans Early pioneers paved the way for others Francis Cecil Sumner: 1st African American to receive a Ph.D. in psychology Studied with G. Stanley Hall Published research concerning strategies for the higher education of African American youths Kenneth and Mamie Phipps Clark: Studied the racial identity in children Their research was cited by the Supreme Court when it outlawed school segregation women in psychology Women were not allowed to earn advanced degrees until well into the 20th Century Belief that women were not smart enough or were unsuited for professional careers Even when they earned degrees, they could not get academic positions