PHLT611: Special Issues in Public Health – I
Unit 01: - Gender and Health: Status of Women in Society, Equity and Equality, Role
of Women in Family, Life Cycle Approach, Gender Issues in Different Disease
Conditions.
Women's health in India can be examined in terms of multiple indicators, which vary by geography,
socioeconomic standing and culture. To adequately improve the health of women in India multiple
dimensions of wellbeing must be analysed in relation to global health averages and also in comparison to
men in India. Health is an important factor that contributes to human wellbeing and economic growth.
Currently, women in India face a multitude of health problems, which ultimately affect the aggregate
economy's output. Addressing the gender, class or ethnic disparities that exist in healthcare and improving
the health outcomes can contribute to economic gain through the creation of quality human capital and
increased levels of savings and investment.
Gender bias in access to healthcare
The United Nations ranks India as a middle-income country. From the World Economic Forum indicate that
India is one of the worst countries in the world in terms of gender inequality. The 2011 United Nations
Development Programme's Human Development Report ranked India 132 out of 187 in terms of gender
inequality. The value of this multidimensional indicator, Gender Inequality Index (GII) is determined by
numerous factors including maternal mortality rate, adolescent fertility rate, educational achievement and
labour force participation rate. Gender inequality in India is exemplified by women's lower likelihood of
being literate, continuing their education and participating in the labour force.
Gender is one of the main social determinants of health—which include social, economic, and political
factors—that play a major role in the health outcomes of women in India and access to healthcare in India.
The high level of gender inequality in India negatively impacts the health of women.
The role that gender plays in health care access can be determined by examining resource allocation within
the household and public sphere. Gender discrimination begins before birth; females are the most commonly
aborted sex in India. If a female foetus is not aborted, the mother's pregnancy can be a stressful experience,
due to her family's preference for a son. Once born, daughters are prone to being fed less than sons,
especially when there are multiple girls already in the household. As women mature into adulthood, many of
the barriers preventing them from achieving equitable levels of health stem from the low status of women
and girls in Indian society, particularly in the rural and poverty-affected areas.
The low status of—and subsequent discrimination against—women in India can be attributed to many
cultural norms. Societal forces of patriarchy, hierarchy and multigenerational families contribute to Indian
gender roles. Men use greater privileges and superior rights to create an unequal society that leaves women
with little to no power. This societal structure is exemplified with women's low participation within India's
national parliament and the labour force.
Women are also seen as less valuable to a family due to marriage obligations. Although illegal, Indian
cultural norms often force payment of a dowry to the husband's family. The higher future financial burden of
daughters creates a power structure that favours sons in household formation. Additionally, women are often
perceived as being incapable of taking care of parents in old age, which creates even greater preference for
sons over daughters.
Gender inequalities, in turn, are directly related to poor health outcomes for women. Numerous studies have
found that the rates of admission to hospitals vary dramatically with gender, with men visiting hospitals
, more frequently than women. Differential access to healthcare occurs because women typically are entitled
to a lower share of household resources and thus utilise healthcare resources to a lesser degree than men. .
A study by Choi in 2006 found that boys are more likely to receive immunisations than girls in rural areas.
This finding has led researchers to believe that the sex of a child leads to different levels of health care being
administered in rural areas. There is also a gender component associated with mobility. Indian women are
more likely to have difficulty traveling in public spaces than men, resulting in greater difficulty to access
services.
Problems with India’s healthcare system
At the turn of the 21st Century India's health care system is strained in terms of the number of healthcare
professionals including doctors and nurses. The health care system is also highly concentrated in urban
areas. This results in many individuals in rural areas seeking care from unqualified providers with varying
results. It has also been found that many individuals who claim to be physicians lack formal training. Nearly
25 percent of physicians classified as allopathic (mainstream medical) providers had no medical training;
this phenomenon varies geographically.
Women are negatively affected by the geographic bias within implementation of the current healthcare
system in India. Of all health workers in the country, nearly two thirds are men. This especially affects rural
areas where it has been found that out of all doctors, only 6 percent are women. This translates into
approximately 0.5 female allopathic physicians per 10,000 individuals in rural areas.
A disparity in access to maternal care between rural and urban populations is one of the ramifications of a
highly concentrated urban medical system. According to Government of India National Family Health
Survey (NFHS II, 1998–1999) the maternal mortality in rural areas is approximately 132 percent the number
of maternal mortality in urban areas.
The Indian government has taken steps to alleviate some of the current gender inequalities. In 1992, the
government of India established the National Commission for Women. The commission was meant to
address many of the inequality’s women face, specifically rape, family, and guardianship. However, the
slow pace of change in the judicial system and the cultural norms have prevented the full adoption of
policies meant to promote equality between men and women.
In 2005 India enacted the National Rural Health Mission (NRHM). Some of its primary goals were to reduce
infant mortality and the maternal mortality ratio. Additionally, the NHRM aimed to create universal access
to public health services and balance the gender ratio. However, a 2011 research study conducted by Nair
and Panda found that although India was able to improve some measures of maternal health since the
enactment of the NHRM in 2005, the country was still far behind most emerging economies.
Gender inequality in India
It refers to the health, education, economic and political inequalities between men and women in India.
Various international gender inequality indices rank India differently on each of these factors, as well as on a
composite basis, and these indices are controversial.
Gender inequalities, and their social causes, impact India's sex ratio, women's health over their lifetimes,
their educational attainment, and even the economic conditions too. It also prevents the institution of equal
rape laws for men. Gender inequality in India is a multifaceted issue that primarily concerns women, but
some argue that various gender equality indices place men at a disadvantage, or that it affects each gender
equally. However, when India's population is examined as a whole, women are at a disadvantage in several
important ways. Although the constitution of India grants men and women equal rights, gender disparities
remain.
Unit 01: - Gender and Health: Status of Women in Society, Equity and Equality, Role
of Women in Family, Life Cycle Approach, Gender Issues in Different Disease
Conditions.
Women's health in India can be examined in terms of multiple indicators, which vary by geography,
socioeconomic standing and culture. To adequately improve the health of women in India multiple
dimensions of wellbeing must be analysed in relation to global health averages and also in comparison to
men in India. Health is an important factor that contributes to human wellbeing and economic growth.
Currently, women in India face a multitude of health problems, which ultimately affect the aggregate
economy's output. Addressing the gender, class or ethnic disparities that exist in healthcare and improving
the health outcomes can contribute to economic gain through the creation of quality human capital and
increased levels of savings and investment.
Gender bias in access to healthcare
The United Nations ranks India as a middle-income country. From the World Economic Forum indicate that
India is one of the worst countries in the world in terms of gender inequality. The 2011 United Nations
Development Programme's Human Development Report ranked India 132 out of 187 in terms of gender
inequality. The value of this multidimensional indicator, Gender Inequality Index (GII) is determined by
numerous factors including maternal mortality rate, adolescent fertility rate, educational achievement and
labour force participation rate. Gender inequality in India is exemplified by women's lower likelihood of
being literate, continuing their education and participating in the labour force.
Gender is one of the main social determinants of health—which include social, economic, and political
factors—that play a major role in the health outcomes of women in India and access to healthcare in India.
The high level of gender inequality in India negatively impacts the health of women.
The role that gender plays in health care access can be determined by examining resource allocation within
the household and public sphere. Gender discrimination begins before birth; females are the most commonly
aborted sex in India. If a female foetus is not aborted, the mother's pregnancy can be a stressful experience,
due to her family's preference for a son. Once born, daughters are prone to being fed less than sons,
especially when there are multiple girls already in the household. As women mature into adulthood, many of
the barriers preventing them from achieving equitable levels of health stem from the low status of women
and girls in Indian society, particularly in the rural and poverty-affected areas.
The low status of—and subsequent discrimination against—women in India can be attributed to many
cultural norms. Societal forces of patriarchy, hierarchy and multigenerational families contribute to Indian
gender roles. Men use greater privileges and superior rights to create an unequal society that leaves women
with little to no power. This societal structure is exemplified with women's low participation within India's
national parliament and the labour force.
Women are also seen as less valuable to a family due to marriage obligations. Although illegal, Indian
cultural norms often force payment of a dowry to the husband's family. The higher future financial burden of
daughters creates a power structure that favours sons in household formation. Additionally, women are often
perceived as being incapable of taking care of parents in old age, which creates even greater preference for
sons over daughters.
Gender inequalities, in turn, are directly related to poor health outcomes for women. Numerous studies have
found that the rates of admission to hospitals vary dramatically with gender, with men visiting hospitals
, more frequently than women. Differential access to healthcare occurs because women typically are entitled
to a lower share of household resources and thus utilise healthcare resources to a lesser degree than men. .
A study by Choi in 2006 found that boys are more likely to receive immunisations than girls in rural areas.
This finding has led researchers to believe that the sex of a child leads to different levels of health care being
administered in rural areas. There is also a gender component associated with mobility. Indian women are
more likely to have difficulty traveling in public spaces than men, resulting in greater difficulty to access
services.
Problems with India’s healthcare system
At the turn of the 21st Century India's health care system is strained in terms of the number of healthcare
professionals including doctors and nurses. The health care system is also highly concentrated in urban
areas. This results in many individuals in rural areas seeking care from unqualified providers with varying
results. It has also been found that many individuals who claim to be physicians lack formal training. Nearly
25 percent of physicians classified as allopathic (mainstream medical) providers had no medical training;
this phenomenon varies geographically.
Women are negatively affected by the geographic bias within implementation of the current healthcare
system in India. Of all health workers in the country, nearly two thirds are men. This especially affects rural
areas where it has been found that out of all doctors, only 6 percent are women. This translates into
approximately 0.5 female allopathic physicians per 10,000 individuals in rural areas.
A disparity in access to maternal care between rural and urban populations is one of the ramifications of a
highly concentrated urban medical system. According to Government of India National Family Health
Survey (NFHS II, 1998–1999) the maternal mortality in rural areas is approximately 132 percent the number
of maternal mortality in urban areas.
The Indian government has taken steps to alleviate some of the current gender inequalities. In 1992, the
government of India established the National Commission for Women. The commission was meant to
address many of the inequality’s women face, specifically rape, family, and guardianship. However, the
slow pace of change in the judicial system and the cultural norms have prevented the full adoption of
policies meant to promote equality between men and women.
In 2005 India enacted the National Rural Health Mission (NRHM). Some of its primary goals were to reduce
infant mortality and the maternal mortality ratio. Additionally, the NHRM aimed to create universal access
to public health services and balance the gender ratio. However, a 2011 research study conducted by Nair
and Panda found that although India was able to improve some measures of maternal health since the
enactment of the NHRM in 2005, the country was still far behind most emerging economies.
Gender inequality in India
It refers to the health, education, economic and political inequalities between men and women in India.
Various international gender inequality indices rank India differently on each of these factors, as well as on a
composite basis, and these indices are controversial.
Gender inequalities, and their social causes, impact India's sex ratio, women's health over their lifetimes,
their educational attainment, and even the economic conditions too. It also prevents the institution of equal
rape laws for men. Gender inequality in India is a multifaceted issue that primarily concerns women, but
some argue that various gender equality indices place men at a disadvantage, or that it affects each gender
equally. However, when India's population is examined as a whole, women are at a disadvantage in several
important ways. Although the constitution of India grants men and women equal rights, gender disparities
remain.
