EDUCATION
Meritocracy: where hard work and ability are rewarded. Can be seen in school and work.
Human capital: the stock of knowledge, skills, creativity that can make someone an
economic asset to society.
Hidden curriculum: means the informal learning that happens in school. This is a side effect
of formal education and teaches us societal norms and values.
Hegemony: the passing on of values which support the rich (through subtle methods such as
education).
Cultural capital: an awareness of middle class norms and values.
Setting: means placing students in groups according to their ability in separate subjects.
Streaming: placing students in groups according to ability across all subjects
Ideal pupil: means the characteristics that a teacher subconsciously looks for in a good pupil.
Self Fulfilling Prophecy: means when a student takes on the label they have been given by
the school and acts accordingly.
Functionalists (Durkheim) believe that the educational system is meritocratic and that
everyone has equal opportunities within school and society.
Functionalism believes that education provides 4 key functions which support individuals and
wider society:
1. Durkheim - socialisation and social solidarity/cohesion. The education system helps
pass on shared norms and values in society. These values are passed through the
hidden curriculum and PSHE lessons.
2. Parsons - bridge between the family and society. This helps student move from
specific values of home life to shared values of school life (which largely match those
of a meritocratic society)
3. Shultz - developing human capital. Suggests that investment in education benefits
the wider economy. Education can provide a well trained qualified and flexible
workforce. Argues that education makes sure the best and most qualified people end
up in the jobs that require the most skill.
4. Davis and Moore - role allocation. Education system provides a means to select and
sift people into the social hierarchy. In a meritocratic society, access to jobs, power,
wealth and status are directly linked to educational achievement.
Evaluation of functionalism:
- Ignores aspects of education which are dysfunctional (e.g negative conflict/poor
behaviour)
- Myth of meritocracy: many challenge the view that education rewards ability.
- Hidden Curriculum: marxists argue that this helps to maintain and reinforce ruling
class ideas.
- Feminists argue that the hidden curriculum maintains patriarchy (not meritocracy)
- Functionalists view children as ‘puppets of socialisation’ when the process is far more
complex (Wong)
- There is a very weak link between educational achievement and wealth/status.
,Marxism:
Disagree with the functionalist view. They see the education system as benefiting only the
ruling classes and helps to maintain social inequality and is an ISA.
● Althusser - Hidden Curriculum. States that the education system deliberately makes
sure that the working classes fail in school - creating an unqualified workforce.
Private education prepares children of the elite for positions of power. The hidden
curriculum teaches us to accept failure and the unfairness in society (e.g praise for
good behaviour/effort, privileges and benefits for sixth form students)- this maintains
the position of the rich and powerful.
● Bowles and Gintis - the correspondence theory and myth of meritocracy.
Correspondence - school processes and systems mirror the world of work in order to
prepare them for the world of work and manual labour (e.g wages not satisfactory,
lack of control, obedience). Myth- education claims to be meritocratic but schools
discriminate in favour of the middle classes (e.g use of academic language). The
hidden curriculum lowers working class ambitions.
● Bourdieu - cultural capital. He argued that cultural capital passes through middle
class institutions (such as schools) and that this capital helps middle class students
succeed. The lack of cultural capital is what causes working class students to
fail.cultural capital also helps students to gain places in the best schools. This
happens through: application forms/interviews, ability/aptitude tests and the
awareness of league tables/admissions procedures.
● Sullivan - supported Bourdieu's ideas by showing that the most successful students
in school; read complex fiction, watch documentaries, and attend high culture events.
Marxism evaluations:
- There is a lack of research carried out in schools
- Pupils are not passive ‘puppets’ of socialisation (hidden curriculum may not have the
impact some describe- Wong)
- They ignore the formal curriculum; many subjects teach students to be critical
thinkers rather than compliant and conforming workers.
- These ideas are deterministic - they suggest we have no choice over what happens
to us.
- Neo marxists argue that social class is not the only factor in deciding success in
school. Other factors such as ethnicity and gender play a huge role and Marxism
ignores this.
Marxism and Functionalism:similarities
● Both see schools as playing a part in justifying social inequality
● Both are macro (large-scale) theories looking at structural views of education in
society.
● Both see education as serving the needs of industrial/capitalist society
● Both see education as having a powerful influence on students.
Marxism and Functionalism:criticisms
● They both place too much emphasis on the role of education in forming student
identities (overlooking families, media)
● They both ignore the fact that many students do not respond well to school -
disruption.
● They both make a link between education and the world of work/economy, claiming
that education provides a ready workforce … There is evidence that this is not true
(students leave schools without many skills).
,Labelling theory:
Labelling theory suggests that teachers often attach a label to a pupil that has little to do with
their actual ability or aptitude. Instead they form an opinion of the student based on how
close the students fit the ideal pupil.
● Becker - suggests that teacher/pupil interactions are based upon these labels and
can lead to a self fulfilling prophecy where the student takes on the label and acts
accordingly.
● Lacey - found that there were 2 ways in which pupil subcultures developed:
polarisation and differentiation. Polarisation is when pupils respond to streaming by
either moving to a pro-school subculture or an anti-school subculture. Differentiation
is a form of streaming, those who are placed in higher streams gain a higher status.
● Fuller - rejection of the label. Research on black girls in london comprehensive
school found that the black girls she researched were labelled as low achievers but
their response to this negative labelling was to work hard and prove their teachers
and school wrong.
● Wong - functionalists have an over-socialised view and people are not puppets of
society.
● Gillborn and Youdell - found that teachers had racialised expectations of black pupils
and expected more discipline problems and saw their behaviour as threatening.
Black pupils were more likely than others to be punished for the same behaviour as
white pupils.
Evaluation:
- Deterministic
- Focuses on the negative effects
- Too much importance to teacher agency - structural sociologists might point out that
schools themselves encourage teachers to label their students.
The New right:
● Similar beliefs to the functionalist view but believe that the state takes too much of a
role and the free market policies (marketisation) would raise standards. If we are still
a part of the government schools would not raise their standards.
● Schools should compete with one another and parents should be seen as a
customer.
Ethnicity and Achievement:
Trends:
● Only 24% of white male students on FSM achieve well in their GCSEs
● White and asian pupils achieve higher grades (on average) than black pupils
● Within every ethnic group, middle class students do better than working class
students.
● Among all groups (except gypsy/roma children) girls do better than boys.
Cultural Deprivation:
● These arguments suggest that many ethnic minority groups lack adequate
stimulation and linguistic development through their socialisation.
● Bowker - ‘the education of immigrants’ a lack of standard English creates a huge
barrier to UK education.
● Bollard and Driver - language problems cease to be a problem by the age of 16.
, ● The Swann Report - found that language differences had little impact on
achievement.
Material deprivation:
This argument (that material deprivation caused low achievement) is paradoxical. We cannot
tell if these groups underachieve within education because they are working class or if they
ended up being working class because other factors lead them to fail their education.
● Flaherty - pakistanis and bangladeshis are 3x more likely than white british students
to be in the poorest ⅕ of the population. Africans, Pakistanis and Bangladeshis are 3x
more likely to be unemployed than whites. 15% of minority groups live in
overcrowded homes. Pakistanis are 2x as likely to be in unskilled jobs compared to
whites.
● Swann Report - social class differences account for a high proportion of differences
in achievement between ethnic groups.
Family structures and support:
● Murray - African Caribbean lone parenthood is to blame. Lack of male role models
means mothers struggle to socialise their children adequately. This has been stated
as an explanation for lower achievement among black boys in school.
● Driver and Ballard - argue that asian families have a much more pro school attitude
than black families. Also because asian families are rarely lone parent families they
offer a bugger support network for children. This has been cited as a reason for
higher achievement among these minority groups.
Educational achievement and social class (external)
Cultural Factors - the curriculum in british schools has (and to an extent remains)
ethnocentric. This means it is focused mainly around one (white british) culture. E,g the
curriculum, school holidays, uniform, school meals. This also includes Bourdieu's theory of
cultural capital.
● Bernstein - believed that language codes either helped or disadvantaged students in
exams. He believed that w/c students have a restricted language code (limited
vocab, short unfinished sentences, grammatically simple) and that m/c students have
an elaborate language code (wide vocab, grammatically complex, varied and
abstract) that allows them to achieve better in exams.
● Douglas - parental attitudes/parentocracy. Argued that parental attitudes to education
and their own levels of education often have a big impact on educational
achievement because w/c place less value on education because of their own levels
of education and therefore their children do not succeed well in school. This is the
opposite for m/c students.
● Feinstein - also states that parents' levels of education impact achievement as m/c
parents socialise their children differently, in particular in terms of parenting styles
where m/c parents are more consistent in terms of discipline and educational
behaviours.
● Sugarman - argues that the w/c have a different culture to m/c which is a barrier to
educational achievement. He identified 4 elements of this subculture: fatalism
(Fatalism- there's nothing you can do to change your status), collectivism (Collectivism -
valuing being part of a group more than being an individual), immediate
gratification(Immediate gratification- seeking pleasure now rather than making sacrifices in
order to get rewards in the future) and present time orientation (Present time orientation-
seeing the present as more important than the future, therefore having no long-term goals).
Meritocracy: where hard work and ability are rewarded. Can be seen in school and work.
Human capital: the stock of knowledge, skills, creativity that can make someone an
economic asset to society.
Hidden curriculum: means the informal learning that happens in school. This is a side effect
of formal education and teaches us societal norms and values.
Hegemony: the passing on of values which support the rich (through subtle methods such as
education).
Cultural capital: an awareness of middle class norms and values.
Setting: means placing students in groups according to their ability in separate subjects.
Streaming: placing students in groups according to ability across all subjects
Ideal pupil: means the characteristics that a teacher subconsciously looks for in a good pupil.
Self Fulfilling Prophecy: means when a student takes on the label they have been given by
the school and acts accordingly.
Functionalists (Durkheim) believe that the educational system is meritocratic and that
everyone has equal opportunities within school and society.
Functionalism believes that education provides 4 key functions which support individuals and
wider society:
1. Durkheim - socialisation and social solidarity/cohesion. The education system helps
pass on shared norms and values in society. These values are passed through the
hidden curriculum and PSHE lessons.
2. Parsons - bridge between the family and society. This helps student move from
specific values of home life to shared values of school life (which largely match those
of a meritocratic society)
3. Shultz - developing human capital. Suggests that investment in education benefits
the wider economy. Education can provide a well trained qualified and flexible
workforce. Argues that education makes sure the best and most qualified people end
up in the jobs that require the most skill.
4. Davis and Moore - role allocation. Education system provides a means to select and
sift people into the social hierarchy. In a meritocratic society, access to jobs, power,
wealth and status are directly linked to educational achievement.
Evaluation of functionalism:
- Ignores aspects of education which are dysfunctional (e.g negative conflict/poor
behaviour)
- Myth of meritocracy: many challenge the view that education rewards ability.
- Hidden Curriculum: marxists argue that this helps to maintain and reinforce ruling
class ideas.
- Feminists argue that the hidden curriculum maintains patriarchy (not meritocracy)
- Functionalists view children as ‘puppets of socialisation’ when the process is far more
complex (Wong)
- There is a very weak link between educational achievement and wealth/status.
,Marxism:
Disagree with the functionalist view. They see the education system as benefiting only the
ruling classes and helps to maintain social inequality and is an ISA.
● Althusser - Hidden Curriculum. States that the education system deliberately makes
sure that the working classes fail in school - creating an unqualified workforce.
Private education prepares children of the elite for positions of power. The hidden
curriculum teaches us to accept failure and the unfairness in society (e.g praise for
good behaviour/effort, privileges and benefits for sixth form students)- this maintains
the position of the rich and powerful.
● Bowles and Gintis - the correspondence theory and myth of meritocracy.
Correspondence - school processes and systems mirror the world of work in order to
prepare them for the world of work and manual labour (e.g wages not satisfactory,
lack of control, obedience). Myth- education claims to be meritocratic but schools
discriminate in favour of the middle classes (e.g use of academic language). The
hidden curriculum lowers working class ambitions.
● Bourdieu - cultural capital. He argued that cultural capital passes through middle
class institutions (such as schools) and that this capital helps middle class students
succeed. The lack of cultural capital is what causes working class students to
fail.cultural capital also helps students to gain places in the best schools. This
happens through: application forms/interviews, ability/aptitude tests and the
awareness of league tables/admissions procedures.
● Sullivan - supported Bourdieu's ideas by showing that the most successful students
in school; read complex fiction, watch documentaries, and attend high culture events.
Marxism evaluations:
- There is a lack of research carried out in schools
- Pupils are not passive ‘puppets’ of socialisation (hidden curriculum may not have the
impact some describe- Wong)
- They ignore the formal curriculum; many subjects teach students to be critical
thinkers rather than compliant and conforming workers.
- These ideas are deterministic - they suggest we have no choice over what happens
to us.
- Neo marxists argue that social class is not the only factor in deciding success in
school. Other factors such as ethnicity and gender play a huge role and Marxism
ignores this.
Marxism and Functionalism:similarities
● Both see schools as playing a part in justifying social inequality
● Both are macro (large-scale) theories looking at structural views of education in
society.
● Both see education as serving the needs of industrial/capitalist society
● Both see education as having a powerful influence on students.
Marxism and Functionalism:criticisms
● They both place too much emphasis on the role of education in forming student
identities (overlooking families, media)
● They both ignore the fact that many students do not respond well to school -
disruption.
● They both make a link between education and the world of work/economy, claiming
that education provides a ready workforce … There is evidence that this is not true
(students leave schools without many skills).
,Labelling theory:
Labelling theory suggests that teachers often attach a label to a pupil that has little to do with
their actual ability or aptitude. Instead they form an opinion of the student based on how
close the students fit the ideal pupil.
● Becker - suggests that teacher/pupil interactions are based upon these labels and
can lead to a self fulfilling prophecy where the student takes on the label and acts
accordingly.
● Lacey - found that there were 2 ways in which pupil subcultures developed:
polarisation and differentiation. Polarisation is when pupils respond to streaming by
either moving to a pro-school subculture or an anti-school subculture. Differentiation
is a form of streaming, those who are placed in higher streams gain a higher status.
● Fuller - rejection of the label. Research on black girls in london comprehensive
school found that the black girls she researched were labelled as low achievers but
their response to this negative labelling was to work hard and prove their teachers
and school wrong.
● Wong - functionalists have an over-socialised view and people are not puppets of
society.
● Gillborn and Youdell - found that teachers had racialised expectations of black pupils
and expected more discipline problems and saw their behaviour as threatening.
Black pupils were more likely than others to be punished for the same behaviour as
white pupils.
Evaluation:
- Deterministic
- Focuses on the negative effects
- Too much importance to teacher agency - structural sociologists might point out that
schools themselves encourage teachers to label their students.
The New right:
● Similar beliefs to the functionalist view but believe that the state takes too much of a
role and the free market policies (marketisation) would raise standards. If we are still
a part of the government schools would not raise their standards.
● Schools should compete with one another and parents should be seen as a
customer.
Ethnicity and Achievement:
Trends:
● Only 24% of white male students on FSM achieve well in their GCSEs
● White and asian pupils achieve higher grades (on average) than black pupils
● Within every ethnic group, middle class students do better than working class
students.
● Among all groups (except gypsy/roma children) girls do better than boys.
Cultural Deprivation:
● These arguments suggest that many ethnic minority groups lack adequate
stimulation and linguistic development through their socialisation.
● Bowker - ‘the education of immigrants’ a lack of standard English creates a huge
barrier to UK education.
● Bollard and Driver - language problems cease to be a problem by the age of 16.
, ● The Swann Report - found that language differences had little impact on
achievement.
Material deprivation:
This argument (that material deprivation caused low achievement) is paradoxical. We cannot
tell if these groups underachieve within education because they are working class or if they
ended up being working class because other factors lead them to fail their education.
● Flaherty - pakistanis and bangladeshis are 3x more likely than white british students
to be in the poorest ⅕ of the population. Africans, Pakistanis and Bangladeshis are 3x
more likely to be unemployed than whites. 15% of minority groups live in
overcrowded homes. Pakistanis are 2x as likely to be in unskilled jobs compared to
whites.
● Swann Report - social class differences account for a high proportion of differences
in achievement between ethnic groups.
Family structures and support:
● Murray - African Caribbean lone parenthood is to blame. Lack of male role models
means mothers struggle to socialise their children adequately. This has been stated
as an explanation for lower achievement among black boys in school.
● Driver and Ballard - argue that asian families have a much more pro school attitude
than black families. Also because asian families are rarely lone parent families they
offer a bugger support network for children. This has been cited as a reason for
higher achievement among these minority groups.
Educational achievement and social class (external)
Cultural Factors - the curriculum in british schools has (and to an extent remains)
ethnocentric. This means it is focused mainly around one (white british) culture. E,g the
curriculum, school holidays, uniform, school meals. This also includes Bourdieu's theory of
cultural capital.
● Bernstein - believed that language codes either helped or disadvantaged students in
exams. He believed that w/c students have a restricted language code (limited
vocab, short unfinished sentences, grammatically simple) and that m/c students have
an elaborate language code (wide vocab, grammatically complex, varied and
abstract) that allows them to achieve better in exams.
● Douglas - parental attitudes/parentocracy. Argued that parental attitudes to education
and their own levels of education often have a big impact on educational
achievement because w/c place less value on education because of their own levels
of education and therefore their children do not succeed well in school. This is the
opposite for m/c students.
● Feinstein - also states that parents' levels of education impact achievement as m/c
parents socialise their children differently, in particular in terms of parenting styles
where m/c parents are more consistent in terms of discipline and educational
behaviours.
● Sugarman - argues that the w/c have a different culture to m/c which is a barrier to
educational achievement. He identified 4 elements of this subculture: fatalism
(Fatalism- there's nothing you can do to change your status), collectivism (Collectivism -
valuing being part of a group more than being an individual), immediate
gratification(Immediate gratification- seeking pleasure now rather than making sacrifices in
order to get rewards in the future) and present time orientation (Present time orientation-
seeing the present as more important than the future, therefore having no long-term goals).
