Civil Rights in the USA 1865-1992: African Americans
Political:
13th Amendment – April 1865: abolished slavery, 3.5m into society. BUT: Lincoln assassinated, VP
Johnson pro-slavery and from South = Congress v President
Black codes 1865/66: BUT: southern states prevented blacks from voting after 15th A in 1870
CRA 1866: Made them US citizens and equal before law BUT: CvP: Johnson had attempted to veto
much legislation in 1866/67. SC Slaughterhouse Case 1873: civil rights came under state jurisdiction
Military Reconstruction Act 1867: radical, states had to accept Reconstruction laws to be re-
admitted to Congress BUT: CvP: Johnson had attempted to veto much legislation in 1866/67,
Compromise of 1877 removed federal troops
14th A 1868: equal protection under the law BUT: black codes
15th A 1870: right to vote – 700,000 enrolled to vote and played role in electing members to
Conventions to draw up state constitutions. Blanche K Bruce became senator and Frederick Douglass
gained political clout - impressive given the circumstances BUT: black codes, few blacks involved in
politics: 1870s: 22 in Congress, 20 to HoR, 2 to Senate – BKB lacked mass support of AAs and failed
to do much from within, Douglass lacked the support he had pre-war. Democrats dominated south
due to campaign to prevent blacks voting e.g. KKK , didn’t need to appeal for the black vote
Jim Crow era: S states devised technical non-racial requirements e.g. literacy/grandfather clauses –
by 1910: AA vote practically eliminated in the South. Congress and President maintained
Compromise 1877 and P Wilson 1912 dismissed all black advisors. No AAs in Congress or even state
legislatures by 1915. BUT: Roosevelt had meetings with BTW. Greater possibility of franchise in
north = possibility of determining local elections.
Post-war: Oscar de Priest elected to Congress in 1928, first since 1900 BUT: most AAs preoccupied
with daily struggle to survive. De Priest was lone voice in Congress. Presidents e.g. Coolidge/Hoover
indifferent, incompetent or powerless.
Roosevelt – turning point for SC: New Deal helped AAs economically. 1937-41: replaced 7 of 11
justices = more liberal rulings e.g. Gaines v. Canada 1938 (separate but equal must really be equal)
Eleanor showed frequent support. BUT: had to rely on Democratic support to pass ND through
Congress thus couldn’t directly tackle AA issue – told Walter White this in 1933.
WW2 and post: SC: Smith v Allright 1944 (registered blacks 2% to 12% 1940-47). Presidents
Roosevelt and Truman personally supported CR e.g. 1941: Executive orders - banned racial
discrimination in federal employment and army desegregated 1948 & Truman’s Committee on CR in
1946. BUT: Congress unhelpful and frequently D-dominated = no legislation.
CR explosion: Social protest sparked significant change - SC Browder v Gayle Nov 1956, Boynton v
Virginia 1960, Bob Kennedy forcibly implemented these as AG. Protests and Kennedy’s death = CRA
1964, showed waning strength of racists in Congress. Selma marches 1965 led directly to VRA 1965 =
Mississippi 6.7%-67.5% registered 1964-68, 1964 = 100 AAs had held public office, 1992 = >8,000
BUT: rapid increase slowed - 1976 = 60% eligible blacks registered, and only 50% voted. Connection
between President Johnson and MLK severed following denouncement of Vietnam in April 1967.
Affirmative action: VRA = reason to court black vote - all 3 branches working in harmony - Congress:
Equal Opportunity Act 1972, SC confirmed validity of AA in Griggs v Duke Power Company 1971.
Other significant SC rulings: Green v Connally 1970, Swann v BoE 1971 BUT: Nixon’s Presidency
became dominated by Watergate.
Ford and Carter: Ford had good relations with CR leaders, appointed first black Transport Secretary.
90% of blacks voted for Carter in 1976: 37 black federal jobs, 2x before. BUT: Ford supported ROAR
(anti-bussing), wary of too much fed intervention.
Reagan 1981-89: Congress liberal approach - 1982 strengthened VRA, and CRA 1988, and 1983 made
MLK bday public holiday. Jesse Jackson won 7m votes in 1988. BUT: hadn’t supported 1965/66 CR
legislation unlike all previous Presidents. Appointed conservative Chief Justice William Rehnquist
1986. SC and Reagan less liberal than Congress - Reagan attempted to veto CRA 1988.
Bush 1989-92: had voted for Fair Housing Act 1968. 1992: 11% of popl and made up 8% of HoR. BUT:
only 7% of judicial appointments were from racial minorities. Black politicians couldn’t make that big
an impact - financial and political constraints.
Political:
13th Amendment – April 1865: abolished slavery, 3.5m into society. BUT: Lincoln assassinated, VP
Johnson pro-slavery and from South = Congress v President
Black codes 1865/66: BUT: southern states prevented blacks from voting after 15th A in 1870
CRA 1866: Made them US citizens and equal before law BUT: CvP: Johnson had attempted to veto
much legislation in 1866/67. SC Slaughterhouse Case 1873: civil rights came under state jurisdiction
Military Reconstruction Act 1867: radical, states had to accept Reconstruction laws to be re-
admitted to Congress BUT: CvP: Johnson had attempted to veto much legislation in 1866/67,
Compromise of 1877 removed federal troops
14th A 1868: equal protection under the law BUT: black codes
15th A 1870: right to vote – 700,000 enrolled to vote and played role in electing members to
Conventions to draw up state constitutions. Blanche K Bruce became senator and Frederick Douglass
gained political clout - impressive given the circumstances BUT: black codes, few blacks involved in
politics: 1870s: 22 in Congress, 20 to HoR, 2 to Senate – BKB lacked mass support of AAs and failed
to do much from within, Douglass lacked the support he had pre-war. Democrats dominated south
due to campaign to prevent blacks voting e.g. KKK , didn’t need to appeal for the black vote
Jim Crow era: S states devised technical non-racial requirements e.g. literacy/grandfather clauses –
by 1910: AA vote practically eliminated in the South. Congress and President maintained
Compromise 1877 and P Wilson 1912 dismissed all black advisors. No AAs in Congress or even state
legislatures by 1915. BUT: Roosevelt had meetings with BTW. Greater possibility of franchise in
north = possibility of determining local elections.
Post-war: Oscar de Priest elected to Congress in 1928, first since 1900 BUT: most AAs preoccupied
with daily struggle to survive. De Priest was lone voice in Congress. Presidents e.g. Coolidge/Hoover
indifferent, incompetent or powerless.
Roosevelt – turning point for SC: New Deal helped AAs economically. 1937-41: replaced 7 of 11
justices = more liberal rulings e.g. Gaines v. Canada 1938 (separate but equal must really be equal)
Eleanor showed frequent support. BUT: had to rely on Democratic support to pass ND through
Congress thus couldn’t directly tackle AA issue – told Walter White this in 1933.
WW2 and post: SC: Smith v Allright 1944 (registered blacks 2% to 12% 1940-47). Presidents
Roosevelt and Truman personally supported CR e.g. 1941: Executive orders - banned racial
discrimination in federal employment and army desegregated 1948 & Truman’s Committee on CR in
1946. BUT: Congress unhelpful and frequently D-dominated = no legislation.
CR explosion: Social protest sparked significant change - SC Browder v Gayle Nov 1956, Boynton v
Virginia 1960, Bob Kennedy forcibly implemented these as AG. Protests and Kennedy’s death = CRA
1964, showed waning strength of racists in Congress. Selma marches 1965 led directly to VRA 1965 =
Mississippi 6.7%-67.5% registered 1964-68, 1964 = 100 AAs had held public office, 1992 = >8,000
BUT: rapid increase slowed - 1976 = 60% eligible blacks registered, and only 50% voted. Connection
between President Johnson and MLK severed following denouncement of Vietnam in April 1967.
Affirmative action: VRA = reason to court black vote - all 3 branches working in harmony - Congress:
Equal Opportunity Act 1972, SC confirmed validity of AA in Griggs v Duke Power Company 1971.
Other significant SC rulings: Green v Connally 1970, Swann v BoE 1971 BUT: Nixon’s Presidency
became dominated by Watergate.
Ford and Carter: Ford had good relations with CR leaders, appointed first black Transport Secretary.
90% of blacks voted for Carter in 1976: 37 black federal jobs, 2x before. BUT: Ford supported ROAR
(anti-bussing), wary of too much fed intervention.
Reagan 1981-89: Congress liberal approach - 1982 strengthened VRA, and CRA 1988, and 1983 made
MLK bday public holiday. Jesse Jackson won 7m votes in 1988. BUT: hadn’t supported 1965/66 CR
legislation unlike all previous Presidents. Appointed conservative Chief Justice William Rehnquist
1986. SC and Reagan less liberal than Congress - Reagan attempted to veto CRA 1988.
Bush 1989-92: had voted for Fair Housing Act 1968. 1992: 11% of popl and made up 8% of HoR. BUT:
only 7% of judicial appointments were from racial minorities. Black politicians couldn’t make that big
an impact - financial and political constraints.
