Civil Rights in the USA 1865-1992: Trade Unions
Effectiveness of strike action
Emergence of unions 1870s-90s: KOL Wasbash Railroad 1886 strike forced Gould to hault anti-union
campaign. BUT: 1866-67 Iron founders strike failed = weakened NLU. Haymarket Affair May 1886,
violent, destroyed KOL reputation, propagated myth of anarchists. Homestead Strike 1892, violent -
300 Pinkerton detectives hired, state militia controlled for 95 days, attempt to murder Frick = AA
broken as union. Pullman Strike 1894 President Cleveland sent in federal troops, court injunctions
used after 1894.
WWI and 1920s: 4m workers involved in 1919 strikes. Great Depression led to more disputes. BUT:
no-strike policy during WWI in return for right to join union & collective bargaining. Red scare strikes
lost public sympathy and were largely ineffective. 1920s prosperity = less need for strikes and unions.
1933: only 10% of workforce unionised, didn’t have right to strike and thus many were fired.
New Deal: some women/AAs/ethnics able to join CIO BUT: great divisions hindered effectiveness of
strike action - AFL focused on skilled labour. Discrimination was rife = lack of solidarity
WW2: BUT: 1943 - President given power to seize any plant where strike interfered with wartime
production, illegal to instigate such a strike. Post-war strikes were rather ineffective and ‘red scare’
lost the movement public support - Cold War context as well.
1950s and 60s (OR NOT?): AFL-CIO 1955 = 16m membership, helped maintain the power/threat of
strike action = steady wage rise of 2%/year. Framework of entitlement to rights facilitated
negotiation and collective bargaining BUT: this reduced strike action as a consequence.
1980s: BUT: PATCO 3rd Aug 1981, contravened 1955 law, little public sympathy. Reagan said back to
work in 48hrs or termination - carried through and leaders sent to prison. Created deep divisions
due to bringing organised labour into disrepute = lack of solidarity and loss of effectiveness of strike
action. Also, hostility of Republicans (Reagan) towards striking. Rapid decline in strike action - 381
major stoppages in 1970 to 31 1980-1995. Most strikes localised and small scale. 1975: 80,000
municipal workers went on strike, alienated public opinion.
Right of TU to exist and membership:
Emergence of unions 1870s-90s: 1866 NLU - first attempt at cross-craft union, 1868: 300k members
- encouraged AAs to organise (but separately). KOL 1869, attempt to unite skilled and unskilled and
remove racial/gender barriers, 1886: 700k members (incl 50k AAs, 10k women), success of 1886
Washbash. Dec 1886 AFL emerged to link all unions, 1914: 2m members. Wobblies gained
membership of 100k 1923. BUT: NLU short-lived and Iron Founders strike failed - died with Sylvis in
1869. NLU didn’t take AAs. KOL destroyed after Haymarket May 1886, 100k members by 1890s.
Wobblies: militant, ineffective, broken by divisions 1924.
WWI and 1920s: Fed govt recognised right to join TU and collective bargaining, NWLB negotiations =
union membership 2.7-5m 1916-1920. BSCP formed 1925, 1928 organised half of porters, achieved
recognition in 1934. BUT: no-strike policy during war. ‘Red scare’ tensions (nativism ran rife), 1920s
prosperity and welfare capitalism = less need for unions, loss of solidarity. AA labour still mainly
estranged from organised labour e.g. BSCP formed in 1925. Depression - only 10% unionised
New Deal: NIRA 1933 - NRA established, 1934: 557 codes covering 23m workers. Wagner Act 1935 -
recognised right of workers to elect representative to bargain on their behalf, permitted closed
shops and banned spies = 3.7m to 9m 1933-38, became political force - close link with Democrats.
BUT: NRA declared unconstitutional in 1935 and big employers (Ford) refused to sign up. AFL
remained primarily concerned with amalgamating craft unions, CIO broke away in 1936 (until 1955
AFL-CIO) = loss of solidarity.
WW2: 8.9m to 14.8m 1940-45 BUT: ‘Red scare’, McCarthyism and Cold War = Republicans wanted
restraints = Taft-Hartley Act 1947, Congress overturned Truman’s veto = 1949 CIO expelled 10
Communist unions = loss of 1/3rd membership.
1950s and 60s (OR NOT?): AFL-CIO merge 1955 = 16m members, encouraged unions to abandon
discriminatory policies. BUT: blue to white collar, ‘affluent society’ = complacency and organised
labour 36% in 1953 to 31% in 1960. TU-Democrat link weakening, focus shifting to poverty/Vietnam.
Effectiveness of strike action
Emergence of unions 1870s-90s: KOL Wasbash Railroad 1886 strike forced Gould to hault anti-union
campaign. BUT: 1866-67 Iron founders strike failed = weakened NLU. Haymarket Affair May 1886,
violent, destroyed KOL reputation, propagated myth of anarchists. Homestead Strike 1892, violent -
300 Pinkerton detectives hired, state militia controlled for 95 days, attempt to murder Frick = AA
broken as union. Pullman Strike 1894 President Cleveland sent in federal troops, court injunctions
used after 1894.
WWI and 1920s: 4m workers involved in 1919 strikes. Great Depression led to more disputes. BUT:
no-strike policy during WWI in return for right to join union & collective bargaining. Red scare strikes
lost public sympathy and were largely ineffective. 1920s prosperity = less need for strikes and unions.
1933: only 10% of workforce unionised, didn’t have right to strike and thus many were fired.
New Deal: some women/AAs/ethnics able to join CIO BUT: great divisions hindered effectiveness of
strike action - AFL focused on skilled labour. Discrimination was rife = lack of solidarity
WW2: BUT: 1943 - President given power to seize any plant where strike interfered with wartime
production, illegal to instigate such a strike. Post-war strikes were rather ineffective and ‘red scare’
lost the movement public support - Cold War context as well.
1950s and 60s (OR NOT?): AFL-CIO 1955 = 16m membership, helped maintain the power/threat of
strike action = steady wage rise of 2%/year. Framework of entitlement to rights facilitated
negotiation and collective bargaining BUT: this reduced strike action as a consequence.
1980s: BUT: PATCO 3rd Aug 1981, contravened 1955 law, little public sympathy. Reagan said back to
work in 48hrs or termination - carried through and leaders sent to prison. Created deep divisions
due to bringing organised labour into disrepute = lack of solidarity and loss of effectiveness of strike
action. Also, hostility of Republicans (Reagan) towards striking. Rapid decline in strike action - 381
major stoppages in 1970 to 31 1980-1995. Most strikes localised and small scale. 1975: 80,000
municipal workers went on strike, alienated public opinion.
Right of TU to exist and membership:
Emergence of unions 1870s-90s: 1866 NLU - first attempt at cross-craft union, 1868: 300k members
- encouraged AAs to organise (but separately). KOL 1869, attempt to unite skilled and unskilled and
remove racial/gender barriers, 1886: 700k members (incl 50k AAs, 10k women), success of 1886
Washbash. Dec 1886 AFL emerged to link all unions, 1914: 2m members. Wobblies gained
membership of 100k 1923. BUT: NLU short-lived and Iron Founders strike failed - died with Sylvis in
1869. NLU didn’t take AAs. KOL destroyed after Haymarket May 1886, 100k members by 1890s.
Wobblies: militant, ineffective, broken by divisions 1924.
WWI and 1920s: Fed govt recognised right to join TU and collective bargaining, NWLB negotiations =
union membership 2.7-5m 1916-1920. BSCP formed 1925, 1928 organised half of porters, achieved
recognition in 1934. BUT: no-strike policy during war. ‘Red scare’ tensions (nativism ran rife), 1920s
prosperity and welfare capitalism = less need for unions, loss of solidarity. AA labour still mainly
estranged from organised labour e.g. BSCP formed in 1925. Depression - only 10% unionised
New Deal: NIRA 1933 - NRA established, 1934: 557 codes covering 23m workers. Wagner Act 1935 -
recognised right of workers to elect representative to bargain on their behalf, permitted closed
shops and banned spies = 3.7m to 9m 1933-38, became political force - close link with Democrats.
BUT: NRA declared unconstitutional in 1935 and big employers (Ford) refused to sign up. AFL
remained primarily concerned with amalgamating craft unions, CIO broke away in 1936 (until 1955
AFL-CIO) = loss of solidarity.
WW2: 8.9m to 14.8m 1940-45 BUT: ‘Red scare’, McCarthyism and Cold War = Republicans wanted
restraints = Taft-Hartley Act 1947, Congress overturned Truman’s veto = 1949 CIO expelled 10
Communist unions = loss of 1/3rd membership.
1950s and 60s (OR NOT?): AFL-CIO merge 1955 = 16m members, encouraged unions to abandon
discriminatory policies. BUT: blue to white collar, ‘affluent society’ = complacency and organised
labour 36% in 1953 to 31% in 1960. TU-Democrat link weakening, focus shifting to poverty/Vietnam.
