Test Bank for Essentials of
Cultural Anthropology
3rd Edition
CHAPTER 2
CULTURE
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading Chapter 2, the student should be able to:
1. Describe the anthropological meaning of culture and its complexities.
2. Explain why it is usually mistaken to equate “culture” with “nation” or “society.”
3. Discuss the nonobvious components of cultural knowledge and their importance.
4. Evaluate the importance of culture to human life.
KEY TERMS
culture (22)
cultural identity (23)
subculture (23)
enculturation (socialization) (24)
patterns of behavior (26)
role (27)
,norm (27)
values (28)
symbol (30)
cultural construction (31)
world view (34)
CHAPTER SUMMARY
Anthropologists use the concept of culture to understand the diversity of human experience.
Culture is the shared, socially learned knowledge and patterns of behavior that are unique to a
group of people. Culture is not only essential for humanity, but it is also the key to our successful
adaptation in a wide variety of environments.
Though definitions vary widely, anthropologists generally agree on certain characteristics of
culture: it is learned, shared, has a profound impact on the group of people who share it, and is
central to understanding the different ways in which groups of people act, think, and feel. In a
narrow sense, culture can be defined as a mental phenomenon; material artifacts and behaviors,
for example, are products of culture in this sense. Broadly defined, culture refers to the way of
life of a given group of people and explains the distinctiveness of the group. Culture is shared by
definition, and always socially learned. Biological differences do not explain cultural differences;
they are independent of each other. Culture is passed from one generation to the next, and trans-
mitted from place to place at any given time.
Attitudes, beliefs, assumptions about the world and other socially learned information that is
stored in the mind, is called cultural knowledge. The five components of cultural knowledge are:
norms, values, symbols, constructions of reality (including the natural and social worlds), and
world views through which reality is interpreted. Culture knowledge is learned through encultur-
ation. It is necessary for human existence because it enables us to adapt to our environments and
provides the basis for human life, as well as shaping our view of reality.
LECTURE OUTLINE
CULTURE
I. A Definition of Culture
a. Culture is both a concept and a word.
b. The modern idea of culture developed in the nineteenth century.
c. All human groups possess culture to the same degree.
d. Anthropological definitions of culture share certain features.
i. Culture is learned from other people while growing up in a particular soci-
ety or group.
ii. Culture is widely shared by the members of that society or group.
, Chapter 2: Mythology
iii. Culture profoundly affects the thoughts, actions, and feelings of people.
iv. Culture in large part accounts for differences in how people act, think, and
feel.
e. Narrow concepts of culture see it as an ideational or mental phenomenon.
f. Broad concepts of culture see it as the whole way of life of a group of people.
g. Even within a culture, behavior varies between individuals.
h. Culture is collective.
i. Common cultural identities do not necessarily equate to sameness.
ii. Colonialism has produced countries filled with many cultural groups who
share a common cultural identity in addition to identifying other cultural
affiliations.
iii. Subcultures refer to nations whose citizens and residents are culturally di-
verse.
i. Culture is socially learned.
j. Enculturation is the process by which infants and children socially learn the cul-
ture of those around them.
k. Culture is not transmitted through genetics or by biological reproduction.
l. Any human infant is perfectly capable of learning culture of any human group or
biological population.
i. The same is true of language acquisition.
ii. Cultural and biological differences are largely independent.
m. Culture is socially learned through observation, imitation, communication, and in-
ference.
i. Every people and nation has adopted things from others.
II. Cultural knowledge
a. Patterns of behavior promote commonality.
i. Roles are associated with privileges and obligations.
ii. Norms are associated with shared ideas and expectations of how people
ought to act in a given situation.
b. Cultural Values
c. These are people’s beliefs about the goals or ways of living that are deemed desir-
able.
III. Cultural symbols may be objects or behaviors or events.
a. These are learned along with other attributes of culture.
i. Arbitrary symbols have no inherent quality.
1. A wink in one culture may have no meaning in another.
ii. Conventional symbols have meaning only because people agree they do.
1. A red light at an intersection means stop only because people obey.
b. Cultural constructions of reality
i. Cultural knowledge that includes shared ways of perceiving the world.
1. There are constructions regarding the natural world.
2. There are constructions about social reality.
, The Anthropology of Religion, Magic, and Witchcraft
c. Cultural world views
i. A world view is the way a people interpret reality and events, including
their images of themselves and how they relate to the world around them.
1. Some cultures believe in things that others do not.
2. Most world views make a connection between the “natural” and
“supernatural.”
3. The way people view their place in nature is part of their world
view.
IV. Culture, Biology, and Human Life
a. Culture is necessary for human existence in at least three specific ways.
i. One, culture provides the knowledge we need to adapt to our surround-
ings.
ii. Two, culture is the basis for human social life.
iii. Three, culture profoundly influences our views of reality.
SUGGESTED SUPPLEMENTARY LECTURES
Culture and Hominids
Discuss how definitions of culture might or might not apply to other hominid species. Consider
the consequences of assuming only modern humans have culture and culture only exists in mod-
ern humans on Homo erectus or Australopithecus afarensis and others. Discuss the possibility
culture arose suddenly in one species or that various components of culture arose at different
times throughout prehistory.
Culture and Nonhuman Primates
Discuss the cognitive capacities of monkeys and apes. Potato washing behavior in Japanese mon-
keys is a famous example of social learning still debated. Chimpanzee mothers may exhibit
teaching their infants the correct technique for cracking open palm nuts with stone hammers.
Students are often amazed by the ability of chimpanzees to use symbols and other properties of
language. Detail the experiments done with Kanzi, the bonobo chimpanzee. One point to make is
how the results of similarities between chimpanzee or non-human primate “culture” and human
culture should not be too surprising, given the close degree of shared genetic material between
chimpanzees and humans.
The Importance of Culture
Discuss the effects of symbolic thought in humans. For example, consider how symbolic thought
helps us adapt to the environment. Since it is often stated that human cultural transmission of
adaptations occurs at a faster rate than genetic adaptations, explain the implications that human
culture transcends biological heritage. Consider if symbolic thought has reduced human biologi-
cal diversity. Illustrate how the human global distribution is unusual among animals and yet we
belong to a single species.
Cultural Anthropology
3rd Edition
CHAPTER 2
CULTURE
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading Chapter 2, the student should be able to:
1. Describe the anthropological meaning of culture and its complexities.
2. Explain why it is usually mistaken to equate “culture” with “nation” or “society.”
3. Discuss the nonobvious components of cultural knowledge and their importance.
4. Evaluate the importance of culture to human life.
KEY TERMS
culture (22)
cultural identity (23)
subculture (23)
enculturation (socialization) (24)
patterns of behavior (26)
role (27)
,norm (27)
values (28)
symbol (30)
cultural construction (31)
world view (34)
CHAPTER SUMMARY
Anthropologists use the concept of culture to understand the diversity of human experience.
Culture is the shared, socially learned knowledge and patterns of behavior that are unique to a
group of people. Culture is not only essential for humanity, but it is also the key to our successful
adaptation in a wide variety of environments.
Though definitions vary widely, anthropologists generally agree on certain characteristics of
culture: it is learned, shared, has a profound impact on the group of people who share it, and is
central to understanding the different ways in which groups of people act, think, and feel. In a
narrow sense, culture can be defined as a mental phenomenon; material artifacts and behaviors,
for example, are products of culture in this sense. Broadly defined, culture refers to the way of
life of a given group of people and explains the distinctiveness of the group. Culture is shared by
definition, and always socially learned. Biological differences do not explain cultural differences;
they are independent of each other. Culture is passed from one generation to the next, and trans-
mitted from place to place at any given time.
Attitudes, beliefs, assumptions about the world and other socially learned information that is
stored in the mind, is called cultural knowledge. The five components of cultural knowledge are:
norms, values, symbols, constructions of reality (including the natural and social worlds), and
world views through which reality is interpreted. Culture knowledge is learned through encultur-
ation. It is necessary for human existence because it enables us to adapt to our environments and
provides the basis for human life, as well as shaping our view of reality.
LECTURE OUTLINE
CULTURE
I. A Definition of Culture
a. Culture is both a concept and a word.
b. The modern idea of culture developed in the nineteenth century.
c. All human groups possess culture to the same degree.
d. Anthropological definitions of culture share certain features.
i. Culture is learned from other people while growing up in a particular soci-
ety or group.
ii. Culture is widely shared by the members of that society or group.
, Chapter 2: Mythology
iii. Culture profoundly affects the thoughts, actions, and feelings of people.
iv. Culture in large part accounts for differences in how people act, think, and
feel.
e. Narrow concepts of culture see it as an ideational or mental phenomenon.
f. Broad concepts of culture see it as the whole way of life of a group of people.
g. Even within a culture, behavior varies between individuals.
h. Culture is collective.
i. Common cultural identities do not necessarily equate to sameness.
ii. Colonialism has produced countries filled with many cultural groups who
share a common cultural identity in addition to identifying other cultural
affiliations.
iii. Subcultures refer to nations whose citizens and residents are culturally di-
verse.
i. Culture is socially learned.
j. Enculturation is the process by which infants and children socially learn the cul-
ture of those around them.
k. Culture is not transmitted through genetics or by biological reproduction.
l. Any human infant is perfectly capable of learning culture of any human group or
biological population.
i. The same is true of language acquisition.
ii. Cultural and biological differences are largely independent.
m. Culture is socially learned through observation, imitation, communication, and in-
ference.
i. Every people and nation has adopted things from others.
II. Cultural knowledge
a. Patterns of behavior promote commonality.
i. Roles are associated with privileges and obligations.
ii. Norms are associated with shared ideas and expectations of how people
ought to act in a given situation.
b. Cultural Values
c. These are people’s beliefs about the goals or ways of living that are deemed desir-
able.
III. Cultural symbols may be objects or behaviors or events.
a. These are learned along with other attributes of culture.
i. Arbitrary symbols have no inherent quality.
1. A wink in one culture may have no meaning in another.
ii. Conventional symbols have meaning only because people agree they do.
1. A red light at an intersection means stop only because people obey.
b. Cultural constructions of reality
i. Cultural knowledge that includes shared ways of perceiving the world.
1. There are constructions regarding the natural world.
2. There are constructions about social reality.
, The Anthropology of Religion, Magic, and Witchcraft
c. Cultural world views
i. A world view is the way a people interpret reality and events, including
their images of themselves and how they relate to the world around them.
1. Some cultures believe in things that others do not.
2. Most world views make a connection between the “natural” and
“supernatural.”
3. The way people view their place in nature is part of their world
view.
IV. Culture, Biology, and Human Life
a. Culture is necessary for human existence in at least three specific ways.
i. One, culture provides the knowledge we need to adapt to our surround-
ings.
ii. Two, culture is the basis for human social life.
iii. Three, culture profoundly influences our views of reality.
SUGGESTED SUPPLEMENTARY LECTURES
Culture and Hominids
Discuss how definitions of culture might or might not apply to other hominid species. Consider
the consequences of assuming only modern humans have culture and culture only exists in mod-
ern humans on Homo erectus or Australopithecus afarensis and others. Discuss the possibility
culture arose suddenly in one species or that various components of culture arose at different
times throughout prehistory.
Culture and Nonhuman Primates
Discuss the cognitive capacities of monkeys and apes. Potato washing behavior in Japanese mon-
keys is a famous example of social learning still debated. Chimpanzee mothers may exhibit
teaching their infants the correct technique for cracking open palm nuts with stone hammers.
Students are often amazed by the ability of chimpanzees to use symbols and other properties of
language. Detail the experiments done with Kanzi, the bonobo chimpanzee. One point to make is
how the results of similarities between chimpanzee or non-human primate “culture” and human
culture should not be too surprising, given the close degree of shared genetic material between
chimpanzees and humans.
The Importance of Culture
Discuss the effects of symbolic thought in humans. For example, consider how symbolic thought
helps us adapt to the environment. Since it is often stated that human cultural transmission of
adaptations occurs at a faster rate than genetic adaptations, explain the implications that human
culture transcends biological heritage. Consider if symbolic thought has reduced human biologi-
cal diversity. Illustrate how the human global distribution is unusual among animals and yet we
belong to a single species.
