NCE National Counselors Exam Question & Answers 2023/2024

NCE National Counselors Exam Question & Answers 2023/2024 NCE National Counselors Exam Question & Answers 2023/2024 Update Milton H. Erickson - answerassociated with brief psychotherapy and innovative techniques in hypnosis Jean Piaget - answerleading name in cognitive development in children; developed a four stage model that remains the same for any culture although the age of the individual could vary; structuralist; his findings were often derived from observing his own children; felt teachers should lecture less, as children in concrete operations learn best via their own actions and experimentation with peers; genetic epistemologist Erik Erikson - answeran ego psychologist who developed a psychosocial theory that includes the whole lifespan and focuses on the resolution of psychosocial crises; stages are described using bipolar or opposing tendencies; theory is epigenetic in nature; the individual does not totally succeed or fail, but rather leans toward a given alternative; a maturationist; believed each developmental stage needs to be resolved before an individual could move on to the next stage Jay Haley - answerknown for his work in strategic and problem solving therapy, often utilizing the technique of paradox Arnold Lazarus - answera pioneer in the behavior therapy movement, especially in regard to the use of systematic desensitization; his approach to counseling is multimodal, eclectic, and holistic; BASIC-ID; worked closely with Joseph Wolpe William Perry - answerknown for his ideas related to adult cognitive development, especially college students; Perry stresses dualistic thinking common to teens Dualistic thinking - answerthings are conceptualized as good or bad or right and wrong; common to teens; William Perry Relativistic thinking - answerability to perceive that not everything is right or wrong, but an answer can exist relative to a specific situation; there is more than one way to view the world; adulthood Robert Kegan - answeradult cognitive development; his model stresses interpersonal development - a constructive model of development, meaning that individuals construct reality throughout the lifespan; encourages meaning making; speaks of a holding environment in counseling in which the client can make meaning in the face of a crisis and can find new direction; Six Stages of Lifespan Development: incorporative, impulsive, imperial, interpersonal, institutional, interindividual Alfred Binet - answercreated the first intelligence test with Theodore Simon; created a 30-question test with school-related items of increased difficult; used his own daughters as test subjects in order to investigate mental processes; cited as one of the pioneers in projective testing based on his work with inkblots; created the first IQ test around 1905 to discriminate normal from retarded Parisian children so that mentally retarded children could be taught separately t test (aka Two-groups or two-randomized-gruops research design) - answera parametric statistical test used in formal experiments to determine whether there is a significant difference between two groups (i.e., two means); utilized to ascertain if the means of the groups are significantly different from each other; when using, the groups should be normally distributed; a test of significance; simplistic form of the analysis of variance (ANOVA); when computed, it yields a t value which is then compared to a t table and if the t value obtained statistically is lower than the t value (aka critical t) in the table, then you accept the null hypothesis; you computation must exceed the number cited in the table in order to reject null Conservation - answerthe notion that a substance's mass, weight, and volume (in the order mastered - MWV) remain the same even if it changes shape; Piaget's term; mastered during the concrete operations stage Symbolic schema/mental processes - answerallows language and symbolism in play to occur (i.e., a milk carton can easily become a spaceship); a cognitive structure that grows with life experience; Piaget's theory Schema - answerthe child's current cognitive structures; a system which permits the child to test out things in the physical world and process new information Lev Vygotsky - answerdisagreed with Piaget's notion that developmental stages take place naturally - insisted that the stages unfold due to educational intervention; pioneered the zone of proximal development Lawrence Kohlberg - answerleading theorist in moral development; theory is epigenetic in nature; theory has 3 levels of moral development each with 2 stages that applies to all people Abraham Maslow - answera humanistic psychologist famous for his hierarchy of needs (survival, security, safety, love, self-esteem, self-actualization) in which the lower-order needs must be fulfilled before the individual can be concerned with higher-order needs; to research the dilemma of self-actualization, he interviewed the best people he could find who escaped "the psychology of the average;" rejected analytic psychology and behaviorism; coined the term, positive psychology; theory is epigenetic in nature Epigenetic - answerbiological term borrowed from embryology; states that each stage emerges from the one before it, the process follows a given order and is systematic John B. Watson - answerfather of American behaviorism; demonstrated that a phobic reaction was learned through his experiment with Little Albert Behaviorism - answerif it can't be measured, it doesn't exist; tend to emphasize the power of environment; Key figures: Skinner, Watson, Wolpe, Krumboltz, Salter, Lazarus; rivals of analysts Reversibility - answerone can undo an action, hence an object can return to its initial shape; mastered in concrete operations Egocentrism - answerthe child cannot view the world from the vantage point of someone else; occurs in the preoperational stage The Heinz Story - answerone method used by Kohlberg to assess the level and stage of moral development in an individual; the individual's reason for the decision (rather than the decision itself) could be used to assess moral development Carl G. Jung - answerfather of analytic psychology; anima and animus; MBTI and GZTS were based on his work; collective unconscious - all humans have collected universal inherited, unconscious neural patterns; introversion (person is his or her own primary source of pleasure) and extroversion (tendency to find satisfaction and pleasure in other people) Sigmund Freud - answerfather of psychoanalysis - the most comprehensive theory of personality and therapy ever devised; structural theory: id, ego, superego; believed morality developed from the superego; 5 psychosexual stages: oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital - if a child is severely traumatized he or she may become fixated at a given psychosexual stage; believed each developmental stage needed to be resolved before an individual could move on to the next stage; a maturationist; terms: eros, thanatos, manifest & latent content; most significant theorist in the entire history of psychology, but many aspects of his theory are difficult to test from a scientific standpoint; his most influential work was a book called The Interpretation of Dreams; worked with Jung and Adler Menninger Clinic in Kansas - answera traditional psychoanalytic foothold as well as the site of landmark work in the area of biofeedback Biofeedback - answera technique utilized to help individuals learn to control bodily processes (autonomic responses), such as blood pressure, pulse rate, or hand temperature, more effectively; hooking the client to a sophisticated electronic device that provides biological feedback; devices include a mirror and a scale; Menninger Clinic in Kansas Martin Seligman - answerpopularized by learned helplessness syndrome Positive psychology - answerthe study of human strengths such as joy, wisdom, altruism, the ability to love, and happiness Alfred Adler - answerthe founder of individual psychology which stresses the inferiority complex and organ inferiority; first therapist to rely on paradox; his work has been classified as a preface to the group movement - "man's problems and conflicts are recognized in their social nature" Preconventional level - answerKohlberg's level of morality where the child responds to consequences and where reward and punishment greatly influence the behavior; stages: punishment & obedience and mutual benefit Conventional level - answerKohlberg's level of morality where the individual wants to meet the standards of the family, society, and even the nation; the individual wishes to conform to the roles in society and live up to society's expectations so that authority and social order can prevail; stages: interpersonal expectations & law-and-order Postconventional level - answerKohlberg's level of morality also known as self-accepted morality. A person who reaches this level is concerned with universal, ethical principles of justice, dignity, and equality of human rights; many people never reach this level; stages: legal principles & universal moral principles Harry Stack Sullivan - answerpostulated the stages of infancy, childhood, the juvenile era, preadolescence, early adolescence, and late adolescence; his theory is known as the psychiatry of interpersonal relations Psychiatry of Interpersonal Relations - answertheory that is similar to Erikson's in that biological determination is seen as less important than interpersonal issues and the sociocultural demands of society; Harry Stack Sullivan's theory Zone of proximal development - answerdescribes the difference between a child's performance without a teacher versus that which he or she is capable of with an instructor; Lev Vygotsky Maturation theory (aka maturation hypothesis) - answersuggests that behavior is guided exclusively via heredity factors, but that certain behaviors will not manifest themselves until the necessary stimuli are present in the environment; suggests that the individual's neural development must be at a certain level of maturity for the behavior to unfold; ex: Freud, Erikson, Gesell A counselor who believes in this concept strives to unleash inborn abilities, instincts, and drives. The client's childhood and the past are seen as important therapeutic topics. John Bowlby - answersaw bonding and attachment as having survival value, or what is often called adaptive significance; insisted that in order to lead a normal social life the child must bond with an adult before the age of 3. If the bond is severed at an early age, it is known as "object loss," and this is said to be the breeding ground for abnormal behavior, or what is often called psychopathology; asserted that conduct disorders and other forms of psychopathology can result from inadequate attachment and bonding in early childhood; felt that mothers should be the primary caretakers, while father's role is to support the mother emotionally rather than nurturing the child himself - most counselors would not agree with this idea today although it was popular in the 1950s Arnold Gesell - answera pioneer in terms of using a one-way mirror for observing children; feel that development is primarily determined via genetics/heredity . Hence, a child must be ready before he or she can accept a certain level of education (e.g., kindergarten) Object loss - answerIf the bond between a child and adult is severed at an early age; said to be the breeding ground for abnormal behavior, or what is often called psychopathology; goes from protest to despair to detachment Adaptive significance - answerhaving survival value Symbiosis - answerchild's absolute dependence on the female caretaker; difficulties result in adult psychosis; coined by Mahler Generativity - answerthe ability to be productive and happy by looking outside one's self and being concerned with other people; part of one of Erikson's stages Harry Harlow - answerbelieved that attachment was an innate tendency and not one which is learned; researcher who is well known for his work with maternal deprivation and isolation in rhesus monkeys - Monkeys placed in isolation developed autistic abnormal behavior. When these monkeys were placed in cages with normally reared monkeys some remission of dysfunctional behavior was noted. The baby monkey was more likely to cling to a terry cloth mother surrogate than a wire surrogate mother. - found that "contact comfort" is important in the development of infant's attachment to his or her mother; in humans the parents act as a "releaser stimulus" to elicit relief from hunger and tension through holding; frightened monkeys raised via cloth and wire mothers ran over and clung to the cloth and wire surrogate mothers Rene Spitz - answernoted that children reared in impersonal institutions (and hence experienced maternal deprivation between the sixth and eighth month of life) cried more, experienced difficulty sleeping, and had more health-related difficulties - called anaclitic depression. These infants would ultimately experience great difficulty forming close relationships. Maccoby and Jacklin - answerreviewed the literature and found very few differences that could be attributed to genetics and biological factors; found that the major impetus for sex-role differences may come from child-rearing patterns rather than bodily chemistry; according to their research, in general, girls possess better verbal skills than boys and, in general, boys posses better visual-perceptual skills and are more active and aggressive than girls (attributed to androgen hormone - one of the behavioral differences) Eros - answerthe Freudian concept of the life instinct; self-preservation Thanatos - answerthe Freudian concept of self-destructive death instinct Manifest content - answerdescribes the dream material as it is presented to the dreamer; psychoanalytic term Latent content - answerrefers to the hidden meaning of the dream; seen as far more important by Freudians Stanley Coopersmith - answerfound that child-rearing methods seem to have a tremendous impact on self-esteem; the findings of his study indicated that children with high self-esteem were punished just as often as kids with low self-esteem. The children with high self-esteem, however, were provided with a clear understanding of what was morally right and wrong. This was not usually the case in children with low self-esteem. When the child with high self-esteem was punished the emphasis was on the behavior being bad and not the child. Parents of children with high self-esteem were more democratic in the sense that they would listen to the child's arguments and then explain the purpose of the rules.; study utilized middle-class boys, ages 10-12 Nature - answerrefers to heredity and genetic makeup Nurture - answerrefers to the influence of the environment on development B. F. Skinner - answerthe prime mover in the behavioristic psychology movement; operant conditioning/instrumental learning; his reinforcement theory elaborated on Arnold Lazarus's concept of the BASIC ID used in the multimodal therapeutic approach that is eclectic and holistic Cephalocaudal - answerdevelopment is head to foot - the head of the fetus develops earlier than the legs; refers to bodily proportions between the head and tail Heredity - answerassumes the normal person has 23 pairs of chromosomes; assumes that heredity characteristics are transmitted by chromosomes; assumes genes composed of DNA hold a genetic code Heritability - answerthe portion of a trait that can be explained via genetic factors Oedipus complex - answerthe stage in which fantasies of sexual relations with the opposite-sex parent occurs; the boy's secret wish to marry his mother, paired with rage toward his father; child realizes that retaliation would result if he would act on these impulses. The child thus strives for identification with the parent of the same sex to achieve vicarious sexual satisfaction; occurs during the phallic stage (ages 3-5); most controversial part of Freud's theory Electra complex - answerthe female child fantasizes about sexual relationship with the parent of the opposite sex; this creates tension since this is generally not possible; the child is said to have a fantasy in which he or she wishes to kill the parent of the opposite sex; Freud went on to hypothesize that eventually the child identifies with the parent of the same sex. This leads to internalization of parental values, and thus the conscience or superego is born. Visual cliff - answera device which utilizes a glass sheet which stimulates a drop-off; developed by Gibson; infants will not attempt to cross the drop-off, thus indicating that depth perception in humans is inherent Stranger anxiety - answerthe child beings to be able to discriminate a familiar person from a person who is unknown; develops by approximately 8 months of age Empiricism (aka associationism) - answertheorists who believe that development merely consists of quantitative changes; according to this theory, scientists can learn only from objective facts; adheres to the principle that experience is the source for acquiring knowledge; the forerunner of behaviorism; the empiricist view of development is behavioristic - value statistical studies and emphasize the role of the environment John Locke - answerhis philosophy is the foundation of empiricism Organismic theorists - answerdo not believe in a mind-body distinction; believe the development consists of qualitative changes; believe change can be internal; opposing view to empiricism; feel individual's actions are more important than the environment in terms of one's development; term has been used to describe Gestalt psychologists who emphasize a holistic model Object permanence - answera child who is beyond approx. 8 months of age will search for an object that is no longer in sight (e.g., huddle be hid a parent's back or under a blanket); the child learned that objects have an existence even when the child is not interacting with them; developed during the sensorimotor stage; representational thought is needed to master; child learns the concept of time and causality Fixation - answerimplies that the individual is unable to go from one developmental stage to the next. The person literally becomes stuck in a stage where he or she feels safe. Therefore, when life becomes too traumatic, emotional development can come to a screeching halt, although physical and cognitive processes may continue at a normal pace. Instincts - answerinnate behaviors that do not need to be practiced or learned; not learned behavioral responses Instinctual - answerbehavior that manifests itself in all normal members of a given species Ethology - answerfield research utilizing animals; the study of animals' behavior in their natural environment; developed by European zoologists who tried to explain behavior using Darwinian theory; associated with the work of Konrad Lorenz Comparative psychology - answerrefers to laboratory research using animals and attempts to generalize the findings to humans Konrad Lorenz - answerbest known for his work on the process of imprinting and the principle of critical periods; study of ethology; compared humans to the wolf or baboon and claimed that we are naturally aggressive - believed aggressiveness is part of our evolution and was necessary for survival. The solution is for us to utilize catharsis and get our anger out, using methods such as competitive sports. Imprinting - answeran instinctual behavior in goslings and other animals in which the infant instinctively follows the first moving object it encounters, which is usually the mother; illustrates the principal of critical periods; an instinct in which a newborn will follow a moving object; Konrad Lorenz Critical period - answerstates that certain behaviors must be learned at an early time in the animal's development; otherwise, the behaviors will never be learned at all; associated with imprinting and Konrad Lorenz; when an organism is susceptible to a specific developmental process; marks the importune of heredity and environment on development Centration - answercharacterized by focusing on a key feature of a given object while not noticing the rest of it (i.e., a child who focuses exclusively on a clown's red nose but ignores his or her other features); occurs in the preoperational stage Deductive thinking/processes - answerallow an individual to apply general reasoning to specific situations; occurs in formal operations stage William Glasser - answerfather of reality therapy Epistemology - answerbranch of philosophy that attempts to examine how we know what we know; Piaget R. J. Havinghurst - answerproposed developmental tasks for infancy and early childhood (e.g., learning to walk or eat solid foods); tasks for middle childhood, ages 6-12 years (e.g., learning to get along with peers or developing a conscience); tasks of adolescence, ages 12-18 years (e.g., preparing for marriage and economic career); tasks of early adulthood, ages 19-30 (e.g., selecting a mate and starting a family); tasks of middle age, ages 30-60 (e.g., assisting teenage children to become responsible adults and developing leisure-time activities); and tasks of later maturity, age 60 and beyond (e.g., dealing with the death of a spouse and adjusting to retirement) Jane Loevinger - answerstage theorist who focused on ego development via seven stages and two transitions, the highest level being integrated (being similar to Maslow's self-actualized individual or Kohlberg's self-accepted universal principles stage) Primal scene - answera psychoanalytic concept that suggests that a young child witnesses his parents having sexual intercourse or is seduced by a parent. The incident, whether real or imagined, is said to provide impetus for later neuroses Preconscious (aka foreconscious) - answermaterial not conscious but can be recalled without the use of special psychoanalytic techniques; deeper than the conscious but not as deep as the unconscious Animism - answeroccurs when a child acts as if nonliving objects have lifelike abilities and tendencies; related to Piaget's pre operational stage Anima - answerrepresents the female characteristics of the personality; Jung; an archetype - inherited unconscious factor Animus - answerrepresents the male characteristics of personality; Jung; an archetype - inherited unconscious facto Wish fulfillment - answera Freudian notion that dreams and slips of the tongue are actually wish fulfillments Ego identity - answerwhen an adolescent is able to integrate all his or her previous roles into a single self-concept; an inability to accomplish Erikson's task results in role confusion, which is known as identity crisis Frank Parsons - answerthe father of vocational guidance; set up centers to help individuals in search of work; in his book, Choosing a Vocation, he stressed a careful self-analysis conducted under guidance and then put down on paper to determine your personal traits. The traits could then be matched to occupations using advice from individuals who had made a careful study of men and vocations of the conditions of success -- trait-and-factor theory; his work fueled secondary school counseling and guidance in the early 1900s; some historians insist that the profession of counseling officially began when he founded the Vocational Guidance Bureau of Boston and published the book Choosing a Vocation in 1909; considered the first pioneer to focus heavily on sociocultural issues Daniel J. Levinson - answerhis research found that 80% of the men in the study experienced moderate to severe midlife crises and an "age 30 crisis" occurs in men when they feel it will soon be too late to make later changes; found that adult developmental transitions in white-collar and blue-collar men seemed to be relatively universal; subsequent research indicates that his theory of a midlife crisis for men or for women does not really hold water Psychosis - answera break from reality that can include hallucinations, delusions, and thought disorders Senile psychosis - answerpsychosis brought on via old age; loss of memory Anxiety - answerrefers to fear, dread, or apprehension without being able to pinpoint the exact reason for the feeling; contrast to a phobia; client is unaware of the source of the fear Phobia - answerthe client can pinpoint the cause or source of fear (known fear) Diagnostic Statistical Manual (DSM) - answera manual used to classify and label mental disorders so that all mental health practitioners will mean roughly the same thing (i.e., regarding symptomatology, etc.) when they classify a client; primary nosological guide Nosology - answerthe branch of medicine which concerns itself with the classification of disease Joseph Wolpe - answerpioneered the technique of systematic desensitization Systematic desensitization - answera behavioristic technique used to ameliorate phobic reactions; useful when trying to weaken/desensitize a client's response to an anxiety-producing stimuli; form of behavior therapy based on Pavlov's classical conditioning Albert Ellis - answerdeveloped Rational-Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT) REBT - answerteaches clients to think in a more scientific and logical manner Learned helplessness - answera pattern in which a person is exposed to situations that he or she is truly powerless to change and then begins to believe he or she has no control over the environment; such a person can become easily depressed; associated with the work of Martin E. P. Seligman Martin E. P. Seligman - answerexperimentally induced learned helplessness in dogs via giving them electric shocks while placed in a harness. These dogs - unlike trained dogs - did not even try to escape the painful shocks when the harnesses were removed Risky shift phenomenon - answerdescribes the fact that a group decision is typically more liberal than the average decision of an individual group member prior to participation in the group; the individual's initial stance will generally be more conservative than the group's decision; the group decision shifts towards the social norm Eric Berne - answerthe father of Transactional Analysis; put Freudian lingo in everyday language and spoke of the parent ego state Parent ego state - answerfilled with the shoulds, oughts, and musts which often guide our morality; coined by Eric Berne; roughly equivalent to Freud's superego Carl Ransom Rogers - answercreated nondirective counseling/client-centered counseling/person-centered counseling; wrote Counseling and Psychotherapy in which he emphasized a theory of intervention in which the counselor was not an authoritarian figure such as in psychoanalysis; trait-factor analysis, or directive schools of helping; known as one of the first theorists to employ audio recordings to improve practicum supervision; counseling rather than testing became the major task for professionals due to his work; does not emphasize diagnosis or giving advice; emphasized unconditional positive regard Heteronomous morality - answerPiagetian stage of moral development that occurs between ages 4-7 when the child views rules as absolutes that result in punishment Autonomous morality - answerPiagetian stage of moral development that occurs around 10 years that is character by the child's perception that rules are relative and can be altered or changed Hierarchy of needs - answerpostulates lower-order physiological and safety needs and higher-order needs, such as self-actualization; Maslow felt the person first needs to satisfy immediate Structuralist (aka personality theorist) - answereach stage is a way of making sense out of the world; believe stage changes are qualitative Down syndrome - answercaused by a chromosomal abnormality (an additional chromosome or two) that causes brain damage which results in an IQ of 50 or less (100 is normal); have a rather flat face, a thick tongue, and slated eyes; also been called mongolsim Phenylketonuria (PKU) - answeran amino acid metabolic difficulty that causes retardation unless the baby is placed on a special diet Klinefelter's syndrome - answera male shows no masculinity at puberty Turner's syndrome - answera female has no gonads or sex hormones Assimilation - answerthe process of taking in new information; Piaget; age varies Accommodation - answera modification of the child's cognitive structures (schemas) to deal with the new information; Piaget; age varies Equilibration (aka equilibrium) - answerthe balance between what one takes in (assimilation) and that which is changed (accommodation); occurs when a child achieves a balance Counterbalancing - answerthe experimental process in which a researcher varies the order of conditions to eliminate irrelevant variables; used to control for the fact that the order of an experiment could impact upon its outcome Balance theory (aka the tendency to maintain cognitive consistency) - answersuggests the individuals avoid inconsistent or incompatible beliefs; people prefer consistent beliefs Maturational theory - answerutilizes the plan growth analogy, in which the mind is seen as being driven by instincts while the environment provides nourishment, thus placing limits on development; counselors who adhere to this theory allow clients to work through early conflicts; psychoanalysts and psychodynamic therapists fall into this category Ritualistic behaviors - answerfixed-action patterns elicited by sign stimuli; results whenever a releaser in the environment is present; the action, or sequence of behavior, will not vary Hysteria - answeroccurs when an individual displays an organic symptom (i.e., blindness, paralysis, or deafness), yet no physiological causes are evident Pica - answera condition in which a person wishes to eat items that are not food Anal retentive personality - answerfrom a Freudian perspective, a client who is stingy Oral character - answerfrom a Freudian perspective, a client who has a problem with alcoholism and excessive smoking Sensorimotor stage - answerPiagetian stage that focuses on reflexes, object permanence, and representational thought Preoperations stage - answerPiagetian stage that focuses on egocentrism, cent ration, and acquisition of symbolic schema Concrete operations stage - answerPiagetian stage that focuses on mastering conservation, counting, and reversibility Formal operations stage - answerPiagetian stage that focuses on abstract thought (time or distance), deductive reasoning, and multiple hypotheses John O. Crites - answerhis work includes research into the phenomenon of career maturity; well-known for his Career Maturity Inventory (CMI); a career counseling trailblazer who felt the need for career counseling exceeds the need for therapy; believed career counseling (which he felt is more difficult than performing psychotherapy) can be therapeutic since a positive correlation between career counseling and personal adjustment is evident Glass ceiling phenomenon - answersuggest that women are limited in terms of how far they can advance in the world of work; a form of occupational sex-role stereotyping that can limit women's careers Lavender ceiling phenomenon - answerthe same basic notion as the glass ceiling phenomenon that is true for gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgendered individuals Displaced homemaker - answera women with children who was a homemaker but is currently in need of work to support her family; the high divorce rate and the declining birthrate created this phenomenon; could be married with grown children, divorced, or widowed Reentry women - answerwomen who go from working within the home to working outside the home; typically experience an extremely high degree of career indecision Pervasive indecisiveness - answera person who has a lifelong pattern of severe anxiety related to decision making; this makes the act of deciding on a career that much more difficult Victor Vroom - answermotivation and management expectancy theory; suggests that an employee's performance is influenced by valence (will the work provide rewards such as money, a promotion, or satisfaction?), expectancy (what does the person feel he or she is capable of doing?), and instrumentality (will the manager actually give the employee the promised reward such as a raise?) Dual-career family - answerfamily in which both partners have jobs to which they are committed on a somewhat continuous basis; have higher incomes than the so-called traditional family in which only one partner is working; since both partners are working there are more problems related to household chores and responsibilities; partners seem to be more self-sufficient; women are typically secure their careers before having children; often report a lack of leisure time which can in turn abet additional stress for both partners; research shows that dual-career households manage to spend as much time with their children as households with a single wage earner Career counseling - answera therapeutic service for adults performed outside an educational setting Vocational guidance - answera developmental and educational process within a school system Changing view of work - answerindicates that in the past work was seen as drudgery, while today it is seen as a vehicle to express our identity, self-esteem, and status; in the past, work was primarily a way to pay the bills, but now the rewards of a career are often conceptualized as fulfilling emotional needs Decrement - answerthe idea that speed, skills, and retention would decrease as one entered old age; proven to not be true because experience impacts job performance more than age does. Therefore, some research demonstrates that older workers are actually more adept then younger ones in terms of skill as well as speed. Leisure - answerthe time away from work which is not being utilized for obligations where the individual has the freedom to choose what he or she would like to do; time that is said to be self-determined Career - answerthe broadest category because it depicts the total work one does in a lifetime plus leisure Avocation - answera leisure activity that one engages in for pleasure rather than money Title VII of the Civil Rights Act - answerprohibits the discrimination on the basis of color, sex, religion, race, or national origin; stated that women would have equal work opportunities and equal job pay; created in 1964 and amended in 1972; instrumental in setting the stage for minority concerns Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) - answerthe watchdog for Title VII guidelines that prohibit discrimination; has enforced Uniform Guidelines on Employee Selection Procedures Uniform Guidelines on Employee Selection Procedures - answerincludes adverse impact Adverse impact - answera test or session process is said to have if it does not meet 80% Four-fifths Rule; divide the number of minority employees by white employees and if the quotient is less than 80% then the process would have an 80% Four-fifths Rule - answerThe hiring rate of minority is divided by the figure for non minorities. If the quotient is less than 80% (4/5s), then adverse impact is evident.; used for hiring and promotion purposes Differential validity - answerevident when a selection process (e.g., a test) is valid for one group, yet less valid or totally invalid for another group; tests affected by this should not be used for hiring or promotion purposes Trait-and-factor theory (aka trait-factor, actuarial, or matching approach) - answerassumed that via psychological testing one's personality could be matched to an occupation which stressed those particular personality traits; sometimes classified as a structural theory since it emphasizes individual differences; grounded in differential psychology - the study of individual differences; fails to take individual change throughout the life span into account; assume that human beings are rational. Hence, when the proper information (e.g., from tests) is available, the individual can make a proper or wise choice of career; been accused of being oversimplified because it subordinated personal choice making, advanced the idea of a single job for life, and assumed that the choice of an occupation is a one-time process; often used by computer career guidance programs; associated with Parsons, Williamson, & Patterson Profile matching - answerattempts to match the worker and the work environment (job factors). The approach thus makes the assumption that there is one best or single career for the person; approach where a job candidate's personality or skills profile is matched to that of successful workers; the decision to hire is then based on the closeness or similarity of the match based on a pattern of predictor scores; considered the first major and most durable theory of career choice Actuarial - answerempirical statistical data (such as the results from a test) is used rather than simply relying on subjective clinical judgement; used with trait-factor approach Edmund Griffith Williamson - answerthe chief spokesperson for the so-called Minnesota Viewpoint, which expanded upon Parson's model to create a theory of counseling which transcended vocational issues John Holland - answercreated the psychological needs career personality theory; suggested that a person's personality needs to be congruent with the work environment; career theorist with the most popular approach to career choice; felt that people try to avoid environments which are disagreeable; believed in stereotypes - the person psychologically defines himself or herself via a given job (AS RICE) - hexagonal representation; personality theorist; believed that a given occupation will tend to attract persons with similar personalities; like Roe, felt that early childhood development influences adult personality characteristics; the Strong Interest Inventory (SCII) is based on his theory Donald Super - answerthe most popular developmental career theorist; emphasized career development rather than career choice; emphasizes the self-concept - the individual chooses a career which allows the self-concept to be expressed; believed career can include student, employee, pensioner, retirement, civic duties, avocations, and family roles Developmental theory - answerdelineates stages in terms of a process which can change throughout the lifespan - longitudinal behavior; includes vocational, psychosocial, cognitive, and personality development Minnesota Viewpoint - answerEdmund Griffith Williamson; purports to be scientific and didactic, utilizing test data from instruments such as the Minnesota Occupational Rating Scales; expanded upon Parson's model to create a theory of counseling which transcended vocational issues; trait-factor approach Minnesota Occupational Rating Scales - answertest specifically aimed at enhancing the actuarial approach to career choice Anne Roe - answerone of the first individuals to suggest a theory of career choice based heavily on personality theory; major propositions: needs which are satisfied do not become unconscious motivators, that higher order needs will disappear even if they are rarely satisfied, but lower order needs (such as safety) will be the major concern, and needs which are satisfied after a long delay will become unconscious motivators; emphasized that early child rearing practices influence later career choices since a job is a major source of gratification for an unconscious need; first career specialist to utilize a two-dimensional system of occupational classification utilizing fields and levels; spoke of 3 basic parenting styles - overprotective, avoidant, or acceptant - that result in the child developing a personality which gravitates toward people or away from people Person-environment theory - answerAnne Roe; a personality approach to career choice based on the premise that a job satisfies an unconscious need; primarily psychoanalytic, though it also draws on Maslow's hierarchy of needs; utilizes a two-dimensional system of occupation classification utilizing fields and levels; in terms of career choice, lower order needs take precedence over higher order needs (job meets the most urgent needs); career choice is influenced by genetics, parent-child interaction, unconscious motivators, current needs, interests (people/things), education, and intelligence; some support comes from the Rorschach and the TAT - projective tests Avoidant child rearing style - answerrejecting; emotionally cold or hostile style; be more likely to produce an individual who would shun person-oriented careers Acceptant child rearing style - answerdemocratic; person-to-person interaction is rewarded; seek out careers emphasizing contact with others Job - answera given position or similar positions within an organization Occupation - answerbroader than a job; refers to similar jobs occupied via different people in different settings (e.g., psychotherapists) Edwin Bordin - answeremphasized unconscious processes in career choice and development; felt that career choices could be used to solve unconscious conflicts; felt that difficulties related to job choice are indicative of neurotic symptoms A. A. Brill - answerpersonality career theorist who drew upon psychoanalytic doctrines; emphasized sublimation as an ego-defense mechanism Sublimation - answeroccurs when an individual expresses an unacceptable need in a socially acceptable manner. A person, for example, who likes to cut things up might pursue a career as a butcher or perhaps a surgeon. John Krumboltz - answerpostulated a social learning approach (a cognitive approach) to career choice; model is based primarily on the work of Albert Bandura; interests are the result of learning, such that changes in interests can be learned; believed exposure to a wide range of work settings is highly desirable; occupational indecisiveness is seen as an indication of an information deficit rather than a lack of career maturity; his model is a behavioristic model of career development; his theory has been categorized as a decision-making theory or even a cognitive one; believed that decision making is a skill which can be learned; acknowledged the role of genetics and the environment but focused on what can be changed via learning Self-Directed Search (SDS) - answerdesigned to measure the six personality types in Holland's career theory; score will reveal the individual's three highest scores based on Holland's personality types; a self-administered, self-scored, and self-interpreted career interest inventory based on John Holland's theoretical notions; an Occupational Finder booklet then describes over 1,300 occupations in order to ascertain which occupations best match the personality type; suitable for ages 15 and older; originally created to help those who did not have access or could not afford professional career counseling; the test is NOT suitable for grossly disturbed, uneducated, or illiterate persons, although an easy form (Form E) is available for those with limited reading skills or those who lack a high school education; also not recommended for those who have a great deal of difficult making decisions Social - answerHolland's personality type that prefers to solve problems using interpersonal skills and feelings; i.e., teachers, counselors, speech therapists, social workers Enterprising - answerHolland's personality type that like to see to others or perform leadership tasks; tend to value power and status; i.e., real estate agents, business owners, television producers, and hotel managers Realistic (aka motoric) - answerHolland's personality type that likes machines; i.e., truck driver, an auto mechanic, or plumbing Holland's psychological needs career personality theory - answertheory described by 4 assumptions: (1) In our culture, there are six basic personality types: realistic, investigative, artistic, social, enterprising, or conventional. (2) Most work environments correspond to six personality types. (3) People search out an agreeable environment which lets them express their personality type. (4) The individual's behavior is determined by an interaction of the personality and the environment.; using this theory the counselor attempts to find a job for the client in which the personality/environment interaction is congruent; viewed as a trait-and-factor approach; most people are not pure personality types and thus can best be described by a distribution of types such as RSI - each individual has a primary direction or type but are best described using a profile over three areas Investigative - answerHolland's personality type that likes to think his or her way through a problem; i.e., scientists, design engineers, geologists, mathematicians, and philosophers Artistic - answerHolland's personality type that values feelings over pure intellectual or cognitive ability; i.e., ballet instructor, writer, or singer; shuns conformity as well as structure; emphasis on self-expression Conventional - answerHolland's personality type that values conformity, structure, rules, and feels comfortable in a subordinate role; i.e., statisticians, bank clerks, bookkeepers, clerical workers, and controllers Henry Murray - answercreated the needs-press theory and the TAT (along with Christina Morgan) projective test Needs-press theory - answerthe occupation is used to meet a person's current need Robert Rosenthal - answerfamous for his research regarding the experimenter effect David Wechsler - answerwell-known for creating the Wechsler intelligence scales; felt that Binet was slanted toward verbal skills and thus he added performance skills to ascertain attributes which might have been cultivated in a background which did not stress verbal proficiency Eli Ginzberg - answerdevelopmental career theorist; research found that occupational choice takes place over a 6-10 year period, the choice is irreversible, and always has the quality of compromise; theory postulated three stages: fantasy, tentative, and realistic; exploration leads to crystallization By 1972 (about 20 yrs after the creation of his theory), he modified his position by stating that the process of choice is open-ended and lifelong. This, of course, refuted the notion of irreversibility. He also replaced compromise with the concept of optimization. -Now believes in a developmental model of career choice which asserts career choice decisions are made throughout the lifespan and career choice is reversible. Optimization - answerIndividuals try to make the best of what they have to offer and what is available in the job market Super's Theory - answeremphasizes 5 life stages; includes the life-career rainbow Life-career rainbow - answerthe person can play a number of potential roles as he or she advances through the five stages in Super's theory; parent, homemaker, worker, citizen, leisurite, student, or child; term describes the graphic display of the roles unfolding over the lifespan; the roles are played out in the theaters of the home, community, school, and work Career maturity (aka vocational maturity) - answerthe extent to which individuals are able to make career-related decisions/choices independently; measured by the CMI Nancy Schlossberg - answerheavily focused on adult career development; suggested 5 noteworthy factors: (1) Behavior in the adult years is primarily determined by social rather than biological factors. (2) Behavior can either be a function of one's life stages or one's age at other times. (3) Sex differences are actually more powerful than age or stage differences. (4) Adults continually experience transitions which require adaptation and self-assessment. (5) Identity, intimacy, and generativity are recurring themes in adulthood. Decision-making theory - answerrefers to periods of anticipation and implementation/adjustment; proposed by David Tiedeman and Robert O' Hara; the decision-making process is best explained by breaking it down into a two-part process - anticipation stage and implementation phase; all contend that the individual has the power to choose from the various career options; asserts that although occupational choice is an ongoing process, there are times when a key decision must be made Anticipation stage - answerthe individual imagines himself or herself in a given career; one of the two parts in Tiedman and O'Hara's decision-making theory Implementation phase (aka accommodation or induction) - answerthe person engage in reality testing regarding his or her expectations concerning the occupation; one of the two parts in Tiedman and O'Hara's decision-making theory Albert Bandura - answertheorist who emphasized the role of modeling in the acquisition of new behaviors; self-efficacy theory is based on his work; proposed that one's belief or expectation of being successful in an occupation causes the individual to gravitate toward that particular occupation; felt that chance factors, such as accidentally being exposed to certain situations, influence career development Social learning theory - answerpeople learn not only from the consequences of their own behavior but also from observing the consequences of others; emphasizes the environment rather than genetics or inborn tendencies; contradicts the innate/instinct aggression theory; generally associated with the work of Albert Bandura; this phenomenon is greatest when the adult is admired, powerful, or well-liked Vicarious learning - answerlearning by watching others Realistic job preview (RJP) - answerthe student, usually in college, contacts a worker in the field and then interviews the worker; behavioral technique Guided imagery - answercan be implemented by having the client imagine a day in the future working in the job or even receiving an award for outstanding performance in the position; effective for adults and adolescents; behavioral technique Human capital theory - answertheory purports that individuals secure training and education to get the best possible income; this theory doesn't seem valid when applied to folks of lower economic status Accident theory - answertheory suggest that chance factors influence one's career; i.e., a student liked his history teacher so he decided to become a history teacher himself Status attainment theory - answertheory posits that the child will eventually secure a job commensurate with his or her family status; this notion will not hold water with a child who has exceptionally low or high career aspirations (e.g., a lower-class child who insists she will become a physician) Job club - answeroperates like a behaviorist group in which members share job leads and discuss or role-play specific behaviors/skills (i.e., interviewing skills) necessary for job acquisition; helps members learn from each other; highly recommended for the disabled; follows selective placement philosophy; suggested by Nathan Azrin who created the approach to help returning Vietnam Vets Nathan Azrin - answercreated job club to help returning Vietnam Vets; one of the leading pioneers who created specific guidelines for running a behavior modification token economy (i.e., giving plastic tokens which could be turned in for actual reinforcers such as food) Gelatt Decision Model - answerasserts that information can be organized into three systems - predictive, value, and decision; refers to information as "the fuel of the decision"; a decision-making theory Harry B. Gelatt - answercreated the Gelatt Decision Model Predictive system - answerconcerned with the probable alternatives, actions, and possibilities of an outcome; stage of Gelatt Decision Model Value system - answerconcerned with one's relative preferences regarding the outcomes; stage of Gelatt Decision Model Decision system - answerprovides rules and criteria for evaluating the outcome; stage of Gelatt Decision Model Linda Gottfredson - answerher developmental theory of career focuses on circumscription and compromise theory; people do restrict choices (circumscription) and when people do compromise in regard to picking a job (and indeed she feels they do) they will often sacrifice the field of work before they sacrifice sextype or prestige Job-netting - answerthe process of finding a job on the internet; younger, lower paid workers are more apt to search for a job on the Internet than those who are more mature or making high salaries; 5.5% of the population has found a job on the Internet Occupational Outlook Handbook (OOH) - answerhighlights the salient factors of the job, necessary training, earnings, and advancement opportunities; most popular source used by career counselors; originally published by the U.S. Department of Labor in 1946 to aid war veterans; used by 9 out of 10 high schools since it is easy to comprehend; focuses on outlook and useful trends or predictions in the labor market; considered the easiest guide to read and understand when in search for career information; contains; contains approx. 800 job descriptions Dictionary of Occupational Titles (DOT) - answerthe largest, most comprehensive source of jobs with approx. 30,000 job titles; used more than any other printed resource in the field; published by the U.S. Department of Labor; each job was given a nine digit code - first three digits designated the occupational category and division, middle three described tasks in relation to data, people, and things respectively, and the final digits helped alphabetize the titles Occupational Information Network (O*NET) - answera new automated replacement for the DOT; lists far more occupations than the old DOT; many highly specialized jobs that only a small number of individuals worked in were dropped; easier and quicker to update What Color Is Your Parachute? - answerthe best-selling job hunting book of all time by Richard N. Bolles; recommended for people seeking employment or change in employment The Bureau of Labor Statistics website - answerthe best resource for career data (i.e., detailed statistics about the average wages in your state) CHOICES - answera software program from high school students that provides information to help them make informed decisions about career and transition planning; middle-school edition: Choices Explorer; well-known computerized career development program; Computer Assisted Career Guidance System Standard Occupational Classification Manual (SOC) - answercodes job clusters (e.g., teachers, librarians, and counselors) via similar worker function; very useful for a counselor who wants to find additional occupations that a worker might already be trained for or could consider with additional training State Department of Economic Regulation - answerthe state department that often handles counselor licensing; mental health licensing might also be handled by the board of healing arts Standard Industrial Classification Manual (SIC) - answerclassifies businesses in regard to the type of activity they are engaged in (i.e, the type of service or produce); industry growth is often computed on codes Underemployment - answeroccurs when a worker is engaged in a position which is below his or her skill level; can occur when an abundance of educated people floods a labor market that does not have enough jobs that require a high level of training Guide for Occupational Exploration (GOE) - answerlists groups of jobs listed in 14 areas; helps job seekers explore jobs that are slanted toward a given interest area; published by the U.S. Department of Labor Computer Assisted Career Guidance Systems (CACG) (aka Computer-based Career Information Systems (CBCISs) - answerinclude SIGI Plus, Choices, and Discover Contrast effect - answerin career placement settings, an interviewer's impression of an interviewee is often affected by previous interviewees; a typical applicant would look more impressive if interviewed after a string of applicants who are ill qualified for the job while an average applicant whose interview comes after several high qualified applicants will not be judged as favorably by the person who is doing the interviewing Compensatory effect - answera worker compensates or makes up for things he or she can't do on the job; i.e., a librarian who must be quiet from 8 to 5 may go out after work and get wild, crazy, and loud; can also be used in a psychodynamic fashion - an individual might tend to compensate for poor job satisfaction by excelling in his or her activities outside of work; i.e., a man who hates his job that is trying desperately to be the perfect father, husband, and family man Spillover - answerthe person engages in activities similar to work during periods of leisure; i.e., an engineer who is building a satellite in his basement Recency effect - answeroccurs when a rater's judgement of an employee reflects primarily his or her most recent performance Leniency/strictness bias - answeroccurs when a rater tends to give employees very high/lenient or very low/strict ratings while avoiding the middle or so-called average range Central tendency bias - answeroccurs when a rater rates almost everybody in the average range Lifestyle - answerthe overall balance of work, leisure/avocational, family, and social activities Strong Interest Inventory (SII) - answera career interest inventory based on Holland's theory; test assumes that a person who is interested in a given subject will experience satisfaction in a job in which those working in the occupation have similar interests; compares a person's interests with those of persons who have been in the occupation for at least 3 years and state that they enjoy their work; measures interests, not abilities; consists of 291 items and is untimed (typically completed in 35 minutes); suited to high school, college, and adult populations; must be computer scored; examinee responds to questions using a forced choice format of "strongly like" to "strongly dislike" to each item; takes 30 minutes to complete; first developed by E. K. Strong, Jr., known as the Strong Vocational Interest Bank (SVIB) for men and expanded by David P. Campbell; recent efforts focused on eliminating sex bias from the instrument; occupational scale for the inventory were created by examining 200-300 happily employed men and women in an occupation Kuder Career Search with Person Match (Interest Inventory) (previously Kuder Occupational Interest Survey (KOIS)) - answeran interest inventory that makes the assumption that a person will find satisfaction in an occupation where workers have similar interest patterns; created by George Frederic Kuder; examines about 140 occupations and college majors; can be completed online in 20-30 minutes; scored by the computer; written at the 6th grade reading level and is effective for 7th grade through adulthood Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery (ASVAB) - answeroccupational aptitude test often administered at recruiting stations or to high school seniors interested in the military; the reliability and validity have recently come under fire; grew out of the trait-and-factor movement related to career counseling Differential Aptitude Test (DAT) - answeroccupational aptitude test that helps students decide whether a student should attend college, and if so, where he or she might excel the most; suitable for students in grades 8-12; takes about 3 hours to complete; grew out of the trait-and-factor movement related to career counseling General Aptitude Test Battery (GATB) - answera multiaptitude test battery consisting of 12 tests developed specifically for vocational counseling in school and job placement settings; measures 12 job-related aptitudes; focuses on in-depth measurements of aptitude and skills that they relate to potential occupational success; takes about 2 1/2 hours to administer and is designed for use with students in grades 9-12 as well as with adults; test utilized by state employment security offices, Veterans Administration hospitals, and related government agencies; created by the U.S. Employment Service Aptitude test - answertest that attempts to measure potential; purpose is to predict future performance; does not imply that you are adept at the skill (say math, music, or principles taught in law school) at the present moment; speculates whether or not you could capture these skills with proper training and experience; predictive validity is important when choosing this kind of test; e.g., GATB, the O*NET Ability Profiler; school selection tests assess aptitude (i.e., LSAT, MCAT) Occupational sex segregation - answersuggests that female occupations generally pay less and lack the status of male occupations; most women hold low paying jobs with low status Dislocated worker - answeran individual who loses his or her job because a company downsizes or relocates; can also refer to a person who has an obsolete set of job skills Habituation (aka adaptation) - answerindicates a decrease in response to a constant stimulus or a stimulus that is repeated too frequently Supply and demand curve - answerin terms of the labor market, the number of employees employers want to hire goes down as salary goes up and the number of employees willing to work for you goes up as the salary increases System of Interactive Guidance and Information (SIGI Plus) - answera computer career program that allows students to conduct a self-assessment and explore career options; provides a realistic view of the finest career options for high school, college, and adult clients; created by the Educational Testing Service (ETS); intended for college students and even assists with up-to-date (updated yearly) information on colleges and graduate schools; Computer Assisted Career Guidance System DISCOVER - answerassists high school (grades 9 and beyond) and adult clients prepare for two- or four-year college, professional or graduate school, career or technical training, military service, or even immediate employment; well known computerized career development program created by the DISCOVER Foundation in Maryland; Computer Assisted Career Guidance System; also a special version targeted at middle school children Selective placement approach - answergive the client job leads and take an active stance in terms of working with the client; preferable with clients who lack the concrete skills necessary to land a job Robert Hoppock - answercareer theorist who feels that to make an accurate career decision you must know your personal needs and then find an occupation that meets a high percentage of the needs; as your personal needs change, you might need to secure a different occupation; choose a job to meet our needs Career Maturity Inventory (CMI) - answermeasures aptitudes and competencies related to the career choice process; created by John Crites Career Decision Scale - answera 19-item, self-reporting measure suitable for high-school and college-aged students that assess career decisions; can be used in both individual and group settings Kuder Career Inventory - answeran interest inventory that makes the assumption that a person will find satisfaction in an occupation where workers have similar interest patterns; a 100-triad inventory in which the respondent must choose between three activities, stating the one activity preferred the most and the activity preferred the least; it takes approx. 12 minutes to complete and can be taken and scored online O*NET Computerized Interest Profiler (CIP) - answerinventory uses 180 items to discern which occupations a client would like and find exciting; measures interests related to 800 occupations using John Holland's RIASEC typology and can be self-administered and self-interepreted; a new interest inventory with a paper and pencil version for this who prefer not to use the comput