BAKERY AND CONFECTIONERY
1. HISTORY OF BREAD
2. BREAD – INGREDIENTS, THEIR ROLE AND STEPS IN BREAD
MAKING
3. BREAD FAULTS
4. BREAD IMPROVERS
5. FROZEN DESSERTS
a. Custards and Creams
b. Ice creams and Sorbets
c. Souffles and Mousses
6. CAKE MIXING AND BAKING
7. PASTRY
8. COOKIES AND BISCUITS
9. BAKERY TERMINOLOGY
10.BAKERY QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
CHAPTER 1: HISTORY OF BREAD
BREAD!!!!…….A word of many meanings, a symbol of giving, one food that is common to so
many countries….but what really is bread????
The Hungarians have a saying that bread is older than man is. More than 12000 years ago,
primitive people made flat breads by mixing coarsely ground grain and water and placing these
cakes in the sun to bake. Later, bread was baked/cooked on heated rocks or in the ashes/embers
of the fires.
It was the Egyptians who are credited with using a starter of wild yeast from the air that was kept
and mixed with the dough to create a leavened product. Legend has it that a slave in a royal
Egyptian household forgot about some dough he had made and kept aside. When he returned, it
had doubled in size. Trying to hide the mistake, the dough was punched down furiously and
baked. The result was lighter bread than anyone had ever tasted.
The ancient Greeks had over 50 kinds of bread. The government built public bakeries and ovens
for every ones use and were popular places to meet the neighbors. The Romans continued the
idea of the public bakeries. They also required that every baker put an identification stamp on
their loafs. In Roman times, grain was ground with millstones and the finest flour was sifted
through silk sieves.
, CHAPTER 2: BREAD
Good food needs good bread and to make good bread one needs to understand the components
(ingredients) that are used in bread making, and their functions. The basic ingredients are Flour,
Salt, Yeast and Water.
Before we go on to discuss the different components of bread, let us first list the different types
of dough.
Bulk Fermented Dough: This is the process that most bakers use to prepare bread. Flour and
salt are blended with yeast and water and mixed to smooth clear dough. The dough is then
covered to prevent drying out and a skin forming, and then giving a period of bulk fermentation.
Here all the ingredients are mixed at once and allowed to ferment. The dough is then knocked
back (de gassed) after about two thirds of the fermentation has taken place and then kneaded to
encourage further yeast activity. In addition, to equalize the dough temperature. When the
fermentation is complete, the dough is weighed off into loafs/rolls. The total fermentation can
vary from one to twelve hours, depending on the recipe.
No Time Dough: This process speeds up the fermentation process by adding an improver that
contains chemicals that would naturally be produced by fermentation, given a little more time.
Flour, Yeast, Salt and water with the improver are blended into a dough, but the mixing is
continued for almost double the time. Until the gluten is developed sufficiently. It is preferable to
use a machine rather than mixing by hand. When mixing is complete, the dough is ready for
scaling (weighing). A little extra yeast is added in recipes using improvers, as the quick
fermentation does not allow the yeast to grow to its normal levels. As this process does not allow
time for the gluten to mellow properly, about 4% extra water must be added to compensate. The
extra water will increase the yield, which should pay for the improver. No time dough is ideal for
those kitchens with limited time, space and facilities. Improvers also assist prolonged quality
maintenance. Improvers also help make reasonable quality bread that has less gluten (weak
flour).
Ferment and Dough: This process is meant for heavily enriched dough’s, to allow yeast to
become accustomed to the high amount of fat and sugar, which have been added, and which will
slow yeast activity. In the first stage, the ferment yeast is blended into a thin batter and fermented
with about 20% of the flour mentioned in the recipe and with all the water. Fermentation
depends on the yeast content. It is best fermented in a prover or in similar conditions. The first
ferment is then blended with the rest of the flour, salt, fat and perhaps milk powder to form a
dough. This is the second or the dough stage and is bulk fermented for roughly the same time as
the ferment. The dough can then be scaled.
TEMPERATURE
It is important to maintain the ideal dough temperature, which controls the speed of fermentation.
Even for basic bread dough, it is necessary to be exact to get the best from the raw material. The
best temperature for fermentation is between 25°C and 28°C. Above 32°C, fermentation is rapid
but gets progressively weaker. Under 24°C, fermentation is slow. As water temperature can be
readjusted, it is the medium that controls the temperature of the dough, determines the water
temperature and the rule of thumb is the doubling method. Double the required dough
temperature, take the temperature of the flour and subtract that from the above number. The
result is the required water temperature. If the dough is required at 28°C, and the flour
temperature is 18°C, then 2x28=56, 56-18=38. Therefore the water temperature should be 38°C.
,Water is essential to bread making to hydrate the insoluble wheat portions forming gluten.
Dissolve the salt, sugar and soluble proteins and form an elastic dough. Water has a marked
effect on the speed of fermentation – a thin batter fermenting faster than a tight dough. The water
content in dough will vary according to the water Absorption Powers (WAP) of various flours.
THE COMPONENTS
SALT – good bread needs salt to offset the blandness and bring out the flavors present. It is also
necessary to stabilize the gluten, help retain the moisture and control the fermenting yeast, which
in turn will affect the crumb or texture of bread and the crust color. Fermentation is too rapid in
dough with too little salt, which checks the growth of yeast so more sugar is converted to gas.
Because the gluten is also weakened, it offers less resistance to the gas expansion, leaving too
much volume and loose crumb texture. The bread lacks brightness and the flavor is insipid. Too
much salt seriously retards yeast activity. Excessive amounts will stop fermentation. With the
yeast activity slowed down, there is a corresponding of the tightening of the gluten resulting in a
smaller volume. At worst, the result is a heavy, rubber like mass with a taste of excessive salt.
YEAST – is a living organism of the fungal family of plants, which changes sugar into CO2
(carbon di oxide), alcohol and other by-products. The gas is caught up in the gluten network,
which aerates the dough. The second function of yeast, equally vital to producing quality bread,
is to assist the ripening or mellowing of the gluten in the dough, so that when the item is baked,
the gluten is in a condition, which gives evenly to the expanding gases and at the same time
retains them (gases). For fermentation to occur, yeast needs a source of glucose (a simple sugar).
Small amounts of glucose and fructose in the dough are fermented directly by the yeast. Other
sugars and carbohydrates are converted to glucose by enzymes in the flour. Yeast must be in a
good condition to work efficiently. It should be cool to the touch and a creamy color. If it is dark
ad of a soft sticky consistency, with an unpleasant odor, then it should not be used. Small
quantities can be kept pressed into a small bar and stored in a cool place. Yeast works best
between 25C and 28C. Above this, the fermentation is rapid but gets progressively weaker as the
temperature increases until 55C to 60C, when yeast is killed. Between 23C and 25C, yeast works
slowly, till at 25C, fermentation stops. It should never be mixed with dry salt or sugar or
dispensed in a strong solution of either, which will kill the yeast. As a living organism, it can
never be dissolved in liquid.
FLOUR - there are two basic types of flour used for bread making, whole meal and strong white
flour. Whole meal flour contains whole-wheat grains, with nothing added or taken away during
processing, Strong with flour has higher protein content and therefore more gluten than soft cake
flour. Whole meal flours have a higher water absorption rate than white flours so the dough may
be stickier. Extra enzymes in the bran coating of the grain speed up the dough ripening so the
dough temperature should be a little cooler to slow down the fermentation. Because the physical
and chemical changes in the dough are more rapid, whole meal dough needs shorter
fermentation.
GLUTEN - Without gluten in the dough, there could be no bread. Gluten is developed in bread
during the manipulation (mixing) of the dough, when two proteins – glutenin and gliadin
combine in the presence of moisture (water) to form gluten. Gluten strands traps the gas
generated by the yeast and holds it in the dough structure. When it coagulates, it becomes the
, framework of the dough, so that it does not collapse. Gluten is conditioned by many factors
including the amount of yeast and how active it is, the amount of salt and water in the dough,
fermentation time, dough temperature, the acidity of the dough and manipulation (kneading).
Given good material and correct balance, nothing contributes to good bread making than
properly made dough. The kneading, fermentation and the knocking back are also important.
Proper mixing gives gluten the opportunity to absorb the maximum water and become
thoroughly hydrated.
IMPROVERS - contain chemicals, which would be produced in dough naturally, given time,
under the skilled eye of the baker. The are used in no Time dough, 1 to 1 1/2 % for rich dough
and 2½% in leaner dough. For basic bread goods 2% improver are added to the flour, water salt
and yeast, and is calculated on the basis of the flour only. For dough that is enriched with fat and
sugar and eggs, 1 to 1 1/2% is enough. The active ingredients in a typical improver would
include sugar, pure emulsifier, soya or guar flour, ascorbic acid (vitamin C) and enzyme active
malt flour.
RETARDATION
Retardation is the arresting of fermentation at temperatures between 2°C and 4°C. It enables the
dough to be made in bulk, retarded and then baked through the day as and when required. This
ensures freshness and standard quality. Enriched dough which ferments slowly, retard the best
and can be kept for up to 72 hours. Retardation can be done in two ways: the dough is given
between 50-70% of its Bulk Fermentation Time (BFT), then rolled out in 3 kgs-4kgs pieces to
quickly take out its heat, and then refrigerated. In the second method, the dough is again given
50-70% of its BFT and then made into pieces, refrigerated and then kneaded, and then brought
back to room temperature. The final proving should not be forced. The dough should be cooled
before retarding as a high temperature will extend fermentation before retardation is effective. To
avoid crusting of the dough, it should be kept in the refrigerator at 75% humidity or in polythene
bags.
DOUGH ENRICHMENT
Dough is sometimes enriched with fat, milk or egg yolks, to increase the food value, add to the
taste and flavour, and to produce a softer crumb (texture) and also to retard staling. Salt will have
to be reduced when using salted butter. Fermentation is slower in enriched dough, so the dough
should be kept a little softer and for a slightly longer time.
POINTS TO NOTE
- Take careful note of the formula/recipe and the method,
- See that the scales are accurate and the scale pans are clean.
- Carefully weigh the flour, sieve it, and take temperature,
- Calculate water temperature and measure.
- Disperse yeast in a little water, add salt in the rest of the water and add to the flour,
- Mix thoroughly until clear and elastic.
-Take the dough temperature and cover the dough to prevent skin formation. - Prove in a place at
the correct temperature or in the prover.
- Knock back when proved according to the BFT.
- Prove rolls in the prover or at controlled temperature and humidity.
1. HISTORY OF BREAD
2. BREAD – INGREDIENTS, THEIR ROLE AND STEPS IN BREAD
MAKING
3. BREAD FAULTS
4. BREAD IMPROVERS
5. FROZEN DESSERTS
a. Custards and Creams
b. Ice creams and Sorbets
c. Souffles and Mousses
6. CAKE MIXING AND BAKING
7. PASTRY
8. COOKIES AND BISCUITS
9. BAKERY TERMINOLOGY
10.BAKERY QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
CHAPTER 1: HISTORY OF BREAD
BREAD!!!!…….A word of many meanings, a symbol of giving, one food that is common to so
many countries….but what really is bread????
The Hungarians have a saying that bread is older than man is. More than 12000 years ago,
primitive people made flat breads by mixing coarsely ground grain and water and placing these
cakes in the sun to bake. Later, bread was baked/cooked on heated rocks or in the ashes/embers
of the fires.
It was the Egyptians who are credited with using a starter of wild yeast from the air that was kept
and mixed with the dough to create a leavened product. Legend has it that a slave in a royal
Egyptian household forgot about some dough he had made and kept aside. When he returned, it
had doubled in size. Trying to hide the mistake, the dough was punched down furiously and
baked. The result was lighter bread than anyone had ever tasted.
The ancient Greeks had over 50 kinds of bread. The government built public bakeries and ovens
for every ones use and were popular places to meet the neighbors. The Romans continued the
idea of the public bakeries. They also required that every baker put an identification stamp on
their loafs. In Roman times, grain was ground with millstones and the finest flour was sifted
through silk sieves.
, CHAPTER 2: BREAD
Good food needs good bread and to make good bread one needs to understand the components
(ingredients) that are used in bread making, and their functions. The basic ingredients are Flour,
Salt, Yeast and Water.
Before we go on to discuss the different components of bread, let us first list the different types
of dough.
Bulk Fermented Dough: This is the process that most bakers use to prepare bread. Flour and
salt are blended with yeast and water and mixed to smooth clear dough. The dough is then
covered to prevent drying out and a skin forming, and then giving a period of bulk fermentation.
Here all the ingredients are mixed at once and allowed to ferment. The dough is then knocked
back (de gassed) after about two thirds of the fermentation has taken place and then kneaded to
encourage further yeast activity. In addition, to equalize the dough temperature. When the
fermentation is complete, the dough is weighed off into loafs/rolls. The total fermentation can
vary from one to twelve hours, depending on the recipe.
No Time Dough: This process speeds up the fermentation process by adding an improver that
contains chemicals that would naturally be produced by fermentation, given a little more time.
Flour, Yeast, Salt and water with the improver are blended into a dough, but the mixing is
continued for almost double the time. Until the gluten is developed sufficiently. It is preferable to
use a machine rather than mixing by hand. When mixing is complete, the dough is ready for
scaling (weighing). A little extra yeast is added in recipes using improvers, as the quick
fermentation does not allow the yeast to grow to its normal levels. As this process does not allow
time for the gluten to mellow properly, about 4% extra water must be added to compensate. The
extra water will increase the yield, which should pay for the improver. No time dough is ideal for
those kitchens with limited time, space and facilities. Improvers also assist prolonged quality
maintenance. Improvers also help make reasonable quality bread that has less gluten (weak
flour).
Ferment and Dough: This process is meant for heavily enriched dough’s, to allow yeast to
become accustomed to the high amount of fat and sugar, which have been added, and which will
slow yeast activity. In the first stage, the ferment yeast is blended into a thin batter and fermented
with about 20% of the flour mentioned in the recipe and with all the water. Fermentation
depends on the yeast content. It is best fermented in a prover or in similar conditions. The first
ferment is then blended with the rest of the flour, salt, fat and perhaps milk powder to form a
dough. This is the second or the dough stage and is bulk fermented for roughly the same time as
the ferment. The dough can then be scaled.
TEMPERATURE
It is important to maintain the ideal dough temperature, which controls the speed of fermentation.
Even for basic bread dough, it is necessary to be exact to get the best from the raw material. The
best temperature for fermentation is between 25°C and 28°C. Above 32°C, fermentation is rapid
but gets progressively weaker. Under 24°C, fermentation is slow. As water temperature can be
readjusted, it is the medium that controls the temperature of the dough, determines the water
temperature and the rule of thumb is the doubling method. Double the required dough
temperature, take the temperature of the flour and subtract that from the above number. The
result is the required water temperature. If the dough is required at 28°C, and the flour
temperature is 18°C, then 2x28=56, 56-18=38. Therefore the water temperature should be 38°C.
,Water is essential to bread making to hydrate the insoluble wheat portions forming gluten.
Dissolve the salt, sugar and soluble proteins and form an elastic dough. Water has a marked
effect on the speed of fermentation – a thin batter fermenting faster than a tight dough. The water
content in dough will vary according to the water Absorption Powers (WAP) of various flours.
THE COMPONENTS
SALT – good bread needs salt to offset the blandness and bring out the flavors present. It is also
necessary to stabilize the gluten, help retain the moisture and control the fermenting yeast, which
in turn will affect the crumb or texture of bread and the crust color. Fermentation is too rapid in
dough with too little salt, which checks the growth of yeast so more sugar is converted to gas.
Because the gluten is also weakened, it offers less resistance to the gas expansion, leaving too
much volume and loose crumb texture. The bread lacks brightness and the flavor is insipid. Too
much salt seriously retards yeast activity. Excessive amounts will stop fermentation. With the
yeast activity slowed down, there is a corresponding of the tightening of the gluten resulting in a
smaller volume. At worst, the result is a heavy, rubber like mass with a taste of excessive salt.
YEAST – is a living organism of the fungal family of plants, which changes sugar into CO2
(carbon di oxide), alcohol and other by-products. The gas is caught up in the gluten network,
which aerates the dough. The second function of yeast, equally vital to producing quality bread,
is to assist the ripening or mellowing of the gluten in the dough, so that when the item is baked,
the gluten is in a condition, which gives evenly to the expanding gases and at the same time
retains them (gases). For fermentation to occur, yeast needs a source of glucose (a simple sugar).
Small amounts of glucose and fructose in the dough are fermented directly by the yeast. Other
sugars and carbohydrates are converted to glucose by enzymes in the flour. Yeast must be in a
good condition to work efficiently. It should be cool to the touch and a creamy color. If it is dark
ad of a soft sticky consistency, with an unpleasant odor, then it should not be used. Small
quantities can be kept pressed into a small bar and stored in a cool place. Yeast works best
between 25C and 28C. Above this, the fermentation is rapid but gets progressively weaker as the
temperature increases until 55C to 60C, when yeast is killed. Between 23C and 25C, yeast works
slowly, till at 25C, fermentation stops. It should never be mixed with dry salt or sugar or
dispensed in a strong solution of either, which will kill the yeast. As a living organism, it can
never be dissolved in liquid.
FLOUR - there are two basic types of flour used for bread making, whole meal and strong white
flour. Whole meal flour contains whole-wheat grains, with nothing added or taken away during
processing, Strong with flour has higher protein content and therefore more gluten than soft cake
flour. Whole meal flours have a higher water absorption rate than white flours so the dough may
be stickier. Extra enzymes in the bran coating of the grain speed up the dough ripening so the
dough temperature should be a little cooler to slow down the fermentation. Because the physical
and chemical changes in the dough are more rapid, whole meal dough needs shorter
fermentation.
GLUTEN - Without gluten in the dough, there could be no bread. Gluten is developed in bread
during the manipulation (mixing) of the dough, when two proteins – glutenin and gliadin
combine in the presence of moisture (water) to form gluten. Gluten strands traps the gas
generated by the yeast and holds it in the dough structure. When it coagulates, it becomes the
, framework of the dough, so that it does not collapse. Gluten is conditioned by many factors
including the amount of yeast and how active it is, the amount of salt and water in the dough,
fermentation time, dough temperature, the acidity of the dough and manipulation (kneading).
Given good material and correct balance, nothing contributes to good bread making than
properly made dough. The kneading, fermentation and the knocking back are also important.
Proper mixing gives gluten the opportunity to absorb the maximum water and become
thoroughly hydrated.
IMPROVERS - contain chemicals, which would be produced in dough naturally, given time,
under the skilled eye of the baker. The are used in no Time dough, 1 to 1 1/2 % for rich dough
and 2½% in leaner dough. For basic bread goods 2% improver are added to the flour, water salt
and yeast, and is calculated on the basis of the flour only. For dough that is enriched with fat and
sugar and eggs, 1 to 1 1/2% is enough. The active ingredients in a typical improver would
include sugar, pure emulsifier, soya or guar flour, ascorbic acid (vitamin C) and enzyme active
malt flour.
RETARDATION
Retardation is the arresting of fermentation at temperatures between 2°C and 4°C. It enables the
dough to be made in bulk, retarded and then baked through the day as and when required. This
ensures freshness and standard quality. Enriched dough which ferments slowly, retard the best
and can be kept for up to 72 hours. Retardation can be done in two ways: the dough is given
between 50-70% of its Bulk Fermentation Time (BFT), then rolled out in 3 kgs-4kgs pieces to
quickly take out its heat, and then refrigerated. In the second method, the dough is again given
50-70% of its BFT and then made into pieces, refrigerated and then kneaded, and then brought
back to room temperature. The final proving should not be forced. The dough should be cooled
before retarding as a high temperature will extend fermentation before retardation is effective. To
avoid crusting of the dough, it should be kept in the refrigerator at 75% humidity or in polythene
bags.
DOUGH ENRICHMENT
Dough is sometimes enriched with fat, milk or egg yolks, to increase the food value, add to the
taste and flavour, and to produce a softer crumb (texture) and also to retard staling. Salt will have
to be reduced when using salted butter. Fermentation is slower in enriched dough, so the dough
should be kept a little softer and for a slightly longer time.
POINTS TO NOTE
- Take careful note of the formula/recipe and the method,
- See that the scales are accurate and the scale pans are clean.
- Carefully weigh the flour, sieve it, and take temperature,
- Calculate water temperature and measure.
- Disperse yeast in a little water, add salt in the rest of the water and add to the flour,
- Mix thoroughly until clear and elastic.
-Take the dough temperature and cover the dough to prevent skin formation. - Prove in a place at
the correct temperature or in the prover.
- Knock back when proved according to the BFT.
- Prove rolls in the prover or at controlled temperature and humidity.
