Summary Key Terms Philosophy of Science

Philosophy of Science: Recap of all lectures
L1: Ways of Knowing
Nomothetic approach: Discover general laws or principles that can be applied across different
situations or individuals. It is a quantitative approach to research that aims to identify patterns
and trends that are statistically significant.
 Generalisations, outcomes as following from general rules and patterns  general concise
knowledge, regularities.
 Seeks to identify commonalities across a group of individuals or cases.
 Research often involves the use of surveys, experiments, and statistical analyses to test
hypotheses and identify relationships between variables.
o The goal of this approach is to develop general theories or models that can be
applied across different situations or contexts.
o Approach is commonly used in fields such as psychology, sociology, and political
science, where researchers aim to identify general principles that explain human
behaviour and social phenomena.
Idiographic approach: Method of inquiry that focuses on understanding the unique
characteristics of individuals or cases. It is a qualitative approach to research that aims to develop
a deep understanding of a particular person or situation.
 Specificity, understands meaning of unique, contingent and subjective outcomes; variety
 reveals differences, gives detailed context-sensitive knowledge.
 Develop a detailed and nuanced understanding of an individual or case, rather than to
identify general principles or laws that can be applied across different situations.
o This approach is commonly used in fields such as psychology, anthropology, and
history, where researchers aim to gain insight into the unique experiences and
perspectives of individuals or groups.
 Research often involves the use of case studies, in-depth interviews, and qualitative
analyses to gain a comprehensive understanding of a particular person or situation.
Quantitative approach: Research method that uses numerical data and statistical analysis to
understand a phenomenon.
 It is a deductive approach that starts with a theory or hypothesis, which is then tested
using measurable data.
 This approach involves structured data collection methods, such as surveys or
experiments, and statistical analysis to test the hypothesis and draw conclusions.
 Research methods: Data collection, answering research questions that can be measured
and tested using numerical data, provides generalizability of outcomes (can be applied to
a larger population).
Qualitative approach: Research method that uses non-numerical data and analysis techniques to
understand a phenomenon.

,  An inductive approach that starts with data collection and analysis, which then leads to
the development of theories or concepts.
 This approach involves methods such as interviews, observations, and focus groups to
collect data and analysis techniques such as coding, categorization, and interpretation of
data.
 Research methods: Analysis techniques, answering research questions that aims to answer
research questions that require a more in-depth understanding of human behaviour and
experiences, research provides a detailed and contextualized understanding of a specific
phenomenon or group.
Natural Sciences: Concerned with the study of the physical world and natural phenomena,
including biology, physics, chemistry, geology, astronomy, and others.
 These disciplines use the scientific method (= observation, experimentation, and data
analysis) to gather empirical evidence, develop theories, and test hypotheses.
 The natural sciences aim to explain natural phenomena through observation,
experimentation, and data analysis.
 Study of a simple world: Physical world and natural phenomena.
o Physical universe is considered to be uniform and simple.
o Includes laws of nature, scientific theories and mathematical models.
 Classes of events, mathematisation, abstraction, idealisation;
Humanities: Concerned with the study of human society and social interactions, including
sociology, psychology, anthropology, political science, economics, and others.
 These disciplines use empirical research methods to study human behaviour and social
interactions.
o Variety of methods, including critical analysis, interpretation, and empirical
research.
 Study of a complicated world: Human culture and history.
o Methodology is hard  human actors are creative, follow no rules // historical
particularity.
 Intimate knowledge of particulars;
 Research output are interpretations of happenings (of the past).
o Focus on understanding human experience and behaviour.
Social Sciences: Aim to explain human behaviour and interactions through observation, data
analysis, and the development of theories.
 Site of tension between nomothetic and idiographic approach;
 Study field: human agents and institutions, forms of behaviour, rationality and ritual,
culture.
o Study human society and behaviour.
 Mixed method research: Involves collecting and analysing both quantitative and
qualitative data in a complementary way to enhance the overall validity and reliability of
the research findings.

, o Quantitative research methods involve collecting numerical data and using
statistical analysis to identify patterns, test hypotheses, and make predictions.
 Examples: Surveys, experiments, and statistical analysis of large datasets.
o Qualitative research methods involve collecting non-numerical data, such as
interviews, observations, and focus groups.
 Qualitative research aims to understand the social phenomena by studying
the meanings and interpretations of people's experiences, behaviours, and
perspectives.
 Examples: Ethnography, grounded theory, and case studies.
 Variety of methods, including critical analysis, interpretation, and empirical research.
L2: Knowledge and Truth
Knowledge: Three types of knowledge gathering
 Knowledge by acquaintance: This type of knowledge refers to knowledge that comes
from direct experience or interaction with something or someone.
o For example, we may have knowledge by acquaintance of a person we have met, a
place we have visited, or a food we have tasted.
 "How to-" knowledge: This type of knowledge refers to knowledge of how to do
something or perform a task.
o It is often practical and skill-based, such as knowing how to ride a bike, play an
instrument, or cook a meal. This type of knowledge is often acquired through
practice and experience.
 Propositional knowledge: This type of knowledge refers to knowledge that can be
expressed in the form of propositions or statements that can be true or false.
o Propositional knowledge is often based on reasoning and evidence, rather than
direct experience. For example, we may have propositional knowledge of
scientific theories, historical events, or mathematical concepts.
Justified True Belief (JTB): For a belief to count as knowledge, it must meet three conditions.
The three conditions of justified true belief work together to create a threshold for what counts as
knowledge. If one of these conditions is not met, then the belief does not count as knowledge.
 The belief must be true: The proposition that is believed must correspond to reality or be
factually accurate.
 The belief must be justified: The person who holds the belief must have good reasons or
evidence to support it. Justification can come from various sources, such as sensory
experience, logical reasoning, testimony from others, or empirical research.
 The person must believe the proposition: The person must genuinely hold the belief and
not be mistaken about it.
Correspondence theory of truth: According to this theory, a proposition is true if it corresponds
to the way things are in the world, and false if it does not correspond.