Safia
Introduction
The Cold War was a period of tension and hostility1 between two superpowers, the USSR and the US.
Although the two countries had been allies during World War Two, soon after it ended they became
enemies. Historians from all points of the political spectrum have discussed what they consider to have
caused the Cold War. This report will analyse; Arthur J. Schlesinger, ‘Origins of the Cold War,’ William A.
Williams, ‘The Tragedy of American Diplomacy’ and lastly John Lewis Gaddis, ‘We Now Know.’
Different Historical Interpretation
Schlesinger, an orthodox historian, blames Stalin’s “excessive paranoia”2 as a root cause for the Cold War,
and that his paranoia stemmed from a “Marxist ideology of capitalist antagonism.”3 Schlesinger states how
even Khrushchev, who later replaced Stalin, believed that Stalin saw, “everywhere and in
everything…enemies, double-dealers and spies,”4 which made his foreign policy reflect this. Stalin’s paranoia
was said to have reached new heights after Japan and Nazi Germany were defeated, for instance, Stalin
suspected that the US were, “planning a separate surrender of the German armies.”5 Stalin’s despotism
showed through his brutal behaviour as seen in The Great Purge (1936-1938) where ‘opposition’ to the
communist regime were either executed, or sent to Siberia, shocking the West.6 Stalin feared American
universalism as it would threaten the Soviet sphere of influence, and as a result the Russians felt they had to
be aggressive as seen in the Berlin Blockade (1948-1949) and COMECON (1949). Schlesinger agrees with
Kennan, the US Ambassador to the Soviets,7 that the Russians held an old age fear of insecurity due to their
history of invasion. Invasions such as the Mongol invasion of Rus' (1223), the French invasion of Russia
(1812), and Operation Barbarossa (1941) which went against the German–Soviet Non-Aggression Pact
(1939).8 This fear became a part “of Russian Psychology”9 and led them to create buffer states for national
security. Schlesinger acknowledges that the change in US presidency affected American-Soviet relations. For
instance, Roosevelt had a restraining conciliatory approach towards Stalin, whereas Truman’s policies “left
Moscow no alternative but to take measures in defence of its own borders. The result was the Cold War.” 10
However, Schlesinger argues that this hard-line by Truman was necessary to defend the US against Russia
and was a reaction to Russia rather than an aggressive action.
1 English Oxford Living Dictionaries. 2016. Definition of cold war in English. [ONLINE] Available
at: https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/cold_war. [Accessed 30 November 2016].
2 Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., . 1967. Origins of the Cold War. [ONLINE ARTICLE] Available at:
http://minotb52ufo.com/pdf/Schlesinger-Origins-1967.pdf. [Accessed 18 March 2017]. pp. 10
3 Hoffman and Fleron, EP. and FJ, 1980. The Conduct of Soviet foreign policy. 2nd ed. New York: Aldine Publishing
Company. pp. 258
4 Schlesinger Jr., Arthur M., 1967. Origins of the Cold War, [ONLINE BOOK]. Foreign Affairs Volume 46, No. 1, 49.
Available at: https://www.jstor.org/stable/20039280?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents [Accessed 19 October 2016]. PP.
49
5 Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., . 1967. Origins of the Cold War. [ONLINE ARCTICLE] Available at:
http://minotb52ufo.com/pdf/Schlesinger-Origins-1967.pdf. [Accessed 18 March 2017]. pp. 10
6 History.com. (2017). JOSEPH STALIN VIDEOS. [Online Video]. Available from: http://www.history.com/topics/joseph-
stalin/videos/stalins-purges. [Accessed: 4 January 2017].
7 BIOGRAPHY. 2014. George F. Kennan Biography. [ONLINE] Available at: http://www.biography.com/people/george-f-
kennan-9362803. [Accessed 10 January 2017].
8 Wikipedia . History of Russia . [ONLINE] Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Russia. [Accessed 1
March 2017].
9 Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., . 1967. Origins of the Cold War. [ONLINE ARTICLE OF THE BOOK] Available at:
http://minotb52ufo.com/pdf/Schlesinger-Origins-1967.pdf. [Accessed 18 March 2017]. pp.5
10 Schlesinger Jr., Arthur M., 1967. Origins of the Cold War, [ONLINE BOOK]. Foreign Affairs Volume 46, No. 1, 49.
Available at: https://www.jstor.org/stable/20039280?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents [Accessed 19 October 2016]. PP.
48
1
, Safia
Schlesinger believed that, “the Cold War was the brave and essential response of free men to Communist
aggression.”11 He goes on to explain that the communists were aggressive due to their, “adherence to an
uncompromising Leninist ideology.”12 In fact, Lenin even wrote that, “in the end one … will triumph,”13 which
led many soviets to believe that they were in direct conflict with bourgeoisie capitalism itself. Stalin’s
foreign policy was derived from Marxism-Leninism which believed all societies were inexorably destined to
reach a “classless nirvana” and this created an ideological divide between the two superpowers. The US was
a threat primordially because it was a leading capitalist power and by Leninist syllogism unappeasably
hostile, therefore diplomatic relations were, “impossible.” 14 The Soviets expanded their influence in Eastern
Europe because they were sceptical as to whether the United Nations could fulfil their security
requirements. Schlesinger stresses that the soviet aggressiveness led to breakdown of the Grand Alliance
especially when, Stalin refused to compromise with universalistic agreements such as the Atlantic Charter
(1941) which were necessary “for a stable peace.”15
In contrast to Schlesinger, Williams, a revisionist historian, believed that the Soviet Union did not “solely”16
cause the Cold War. Williams saw US isolationism as a “myth” (1920s-30s) and reconfigured World War Two
as “the war for the American frontier”17. Williams saw a continuous imperial thread through American
foreign policy, which derived from the Open Door “Weltanschauung.”18 The Open-Door policy allowed
America to establish empires through aggressive expansionism post-World Wars, to secure markets abroad
for America’s surplus agricultural products and manufactured goods as the country wanted to avoid another
depression (1929). Williams uses several historical examples,19 such as the American interference in China
(1899) with Secretary of State John Hay who circulated the Open-Door notes of free open markets and equal
trading which would benefit the US economy.20 Williams further mentions, that Americas expansionist vision
post-World War One began with Democratic president, Woodrow Wilsons 14 points which perpetuated the
American political economy well for example, “US exports went from $2.4billion in 1914 to $6.4billion in
1917”.21
11 Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., . 1967. Origins of the Cold War. [ONLINE ARTICLE OF THE BOOK] Available at:
http://minotb52ufo.com/pdf/Schlesinger-Origins-1967.pdf. [Accessed 18 March 2017].
pp.2
12 Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., . 1967. Origins of the Cold War. [ONLINE ARCTICLE] Available at:
http://minotb52ufo.com/pdf/Schlesinger-Origins-1967.pdf. [Accessed 18 March 2017]. pp. 1
13 Harper, John Lamberton, 2011. The Cold War. 1st ed. United Kingdom : Oxford University Press. pp.29
14 Schlesinger Jr., Arthur M., 1967. Origins of the Cold War, [ONLINE BOOK]. Foreign Affairs Volume 46, No. 1, 49.
Available at: https://www.jstor.org/stable/20039280?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents [Accessed 19 October 2016].
pp.13
15 Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., . 1967. Origins of the Cold War. [ONLINE] Available at:
http://minotb52ufo.com/pdf/Schlesinger-Origins-1967.pdf. [Accessed 18 March 2017]. pp. 8
16Crapol, Edward, 1987. Some Reflections on the Historiography of the Cold War, [Online Book Article]. Vol. 20, No. 2.
Available at: https://www.jstor.org/stable/493031?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents [Accessed 11 January 2017]. pp.
255
17 Gwinn, I. A, 2009. Towards a critical historiography of orthodox-revisionist debates on the origins of the cold war:
between disciplinary power and U.S. National identity. Masters of Philosophy. Birmingham: University of Birmingham .
pp. 52
18 Academia.edu, Gregory Brew. 2016. Imagining Empire: William Appleman Williams and the Historiography of
American Foreign Policy. [ONLINE] Available
at: http://www.academia.edu/8046913/Imagining_Empire_William_Appleman_Williams_and_the_Historiography_of_
American_Foreign_Policy. [Accessed 7 March 2017]. pp. 1-5
19Jones, Scott, 2001. Western Historiography on the Origins of the Cold War. pp. 5-6
20 Quizlet, Stephen-Decatur. 2016. All Terms For APUSH . [ONLINE] Available at: https://quizlet.com/5245568/all-terms-
for-apush-flash-cards/. [Accessed 1 March 2017].
21 Phillips , Dennis , 2007. The tragedy of American Diplomacy: A tribute to the legacy of William Appleman Williams ,
Vol. 26, No. 2., Australia New Zealand American Studies Association pp. 94
2
Introduction
The Cold War was a period of tension and hostility1 between two superpowers, the USSR and the US.
Although the two countries had been allies during World War Two, soon after it ended they became
enemies. Historians from all points of the political spectrum have discussed what they consider to have
caused the Cold War. This report will analyse; Arthur J. Schlesinger, ‘Origins of the Cold War,’ William A.
Williams, ‘The Tragedy of American Diplomacy’ and lastly John Lewis Gaddis, ‘We Now Know.’
Different Historical Interpretation
Schlesinger, an orthodox historian, blames Stalin’s “excessive paranoia”2 as a root cause for the Cold War,
and that his paranoia stemmed from a “Marxist ideology of capitalist antagonism.”3 Schlesinger states how
even Khrushchev, who later replaced Stalin, believed that Stalin saw, “everywhere and in
everything…enemies, double-dealers and spies,”4 which made his foreign policy reflect this. Stalin’s paranoia
was said to have reached new heights after Japan and Nazi Germany were defeated, for instance, Stalin
suspected that the US were, “planning a separate surrender of the German armies.”5 Stalin’s despotism
showed through his brutal behaviour as seen in The Great Purge (1936-1938) where ‘opposition’ to the
communist regime were either executed, or sent to Siberia, shocking the West.6 Stalin feared American
universalism as it would threaten the Soviet sphere of influence, and as a result the Russians felt they had to
be aggressive as seen in the Berlin Blockade (1948-1949) and COMECON (1949). Schlesinger agrees with
Kennan, the US Ambassador to the Soviets,7 that the Russians held an old age fear of insecurity due to their
history of invasion. Invasions such as the Mongol invasion of Rus' (1223), the French invasion of Russia
(1812), and Operation Barbarossa (1941) which went against the German–Soviet Non-Aggression Pact
(1939).8 This fear became a part “of Russian Psychology”9 and led them to create buffer states for national
security. Schlesinger acknowledges that the change in US presidency affected American-Soviet relations. For
instance, Roosevelt had a restraining conciliatory approach towards Stalin, whereas Truman’s policies “left
Moscow no alternative but to take measures in defence of its own borders. The result was the Cold War.” 10
However, Schlesinger argues that this hard-line by Truman was necessary to defend the US against Russia
and was a reaction to Russia rather than an aggressive action.
1 English Oxford Living Dictionaries. 2016. Definition of cold war in English. [ONLINE] Available
at: https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/cold_war. [Accessed 30 November 2016].
2 Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., . 1967. Origins of the Cold War. [ONLINE ARTICLE] Available at:
http://minotb52ufo.com/pdf/Schlesinger-Origins-1967.pdf. [Accessed 18 March 2017]. pp. 10
3 Hoffman and Fleron, EP. and FJ, 1980. The Conduct of Soviet foreign policy. 2nd ed. New York: Aldine Publishing
Company. pp. 258
4 Schlesinger Jr., Arthur M., 1967. Origins of the Cold War, [ONLINE BOOK]. Foreign Affairs Volume 46, No. 1, 49.
Available at: https://www.jstor.org/stable/20039280?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents [Accessed 19 October 2016]. PP.
49
5 Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., . 1967. Origins of the Cold War. [ONLINE ARCTICLE] Available at:
http://minotb52ufo.com/pdf/Schlesinger-Origins-1967.pdf. [Accessed 18 March 2017]. pp. 10
6 History.com. (2017). JOSEPH STALIN VIDEOS. [Online Video]. Available from: http://www.history.com/topics/joseph-
stalin/videos/stalins-purges. [Accessed: 4 January 2017].
7 BIOGRAPHY. 2014. George F. Kennan Biography. [ONLINE] Available at: http://www.biography.com/people/george-f-
kennan-9362803. [Accessed 10 January 2017].
8 Wikipedia . History of Russia . [ONLINE] Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Russia. [Accessed 1
March 2017].
9 Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., . 1967. Origins of the Cold War. [ONLINE ARTICLE OF THE BOOK] Available at:
http://minotb52ufo.com/pdf/Schlesinger-Origins-1967.pdf. [Accessed 18 March 2017]. pp.5
10 Schlesinger Jr., Arthur M., 1967. Origins of the Cold War, [ONLINE BOOK]. Foreign Affairs Volume 46, No. 1, 49.
Available at: https://www.jstor.org/stable/20039280?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents [Accessed 19 October 2016]. PP.
48
1
, Safia
Schlesinger believed that, “the Cold War was the brave and essential response of free men to Communist
aggression.”11 He goes on to explain that the communists were aggressive due to their, “adherence to an
uncompromising Leninist ideology.”12 In fact, Lenin even wrote that, “in the end one … will triumph,”13 which
led many soviets to believe that they were in direct conflict with bourgeoisie capitalism itself. Stalin’s
foreign policy was derived from Marxism-Leninism which believed all societies were inexorably destined to
reach a “classless nirvana” and this created an ideological divide between the two superpowers. The US was
a threat primordially because it was a leading capitalist power and by Leninist syllogism unappeasably
hostile, therefore diplomatic relations were, “impossible.” 14 The Soviets expanded their influence in Eastern
Europe because they were sceptical as to whether the United Nations could fulfil their security
requirements. Schlesinger stresses that the soviet aggressiveness led to breakdown of the Grand Alliance
especially when, Stalin refused to compromise with universalistic agreements such as the Atlantic Charter
(1941) which were necessary “for a stable peace.”15
In contrast to Schlesinger, Williams, a revisionist historian, believed that the Soviet Union did not “solely”16
cause the Cold War. Williams saw US isolationism as a “myth” (1920s-30s) and reconfigured World War Two
as “the war for the American frontier”17. Williams saw a continuous imperial thread through American
foreign policy, which derived from the Open Door “Weltanschauung.”18 The Open-Door policy allowed
America to establish empires through aggressive expansionism post-World Wars, to secure markets abroad
for America’s surplus agricultural products and manufactured goods as the country wanted to avoid another
depression (1929). Williams uses several historical examples,19 such as the American interference in China
(1899) with Secretary of State John Hay who circulated the Open-Door notes of free open markets and equal
trading which would benefit the US economy.20 Williams further mentions, that Americas expansionist vision
post-World War One began with Democratic president, Woodrow Wilsons 14 points which perpetuated the
American political economy well for example, “US exports went from $2.4billion in 1914 to $6.4billion in
1917”.21
11 Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., . 1967. Origins of the Cold War. [ONLINE ARTICLE OF THE BOOK] Available at:
http://minotb52ufo.com/pdf/Schlesinger-Origins-1967.pdf. [Accessed 18 March 2017].
pp.2
12 Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., . 1967. Origins of the Cold War. [ONLINE ARCTICLE] Available at:
http://minotb52ufo.com/pdf/Schlesinger-Origins-1967.pdf. [Accessed 18 March 2017]. pp. 1
13 Harper, John Lamberton, 2011. The Cold War. 1st ed. United Kingdom : Oxford University Press. pp.29
14 Schlesinger Jr., Arthur M., 1967. Origins of the Cold War, [ONLINE BOOK]. Foreign Affairs Volume 46, No. 1, 49.
Available at: https://www.jstor.org/stable/20039280?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents [Accessed 19 October 2016].
pp.13
15 Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., . 1967. Origins of the Cold War. [ONLINE] Available at:
http://minotb52ufo.com/pdf/Schlesinger-Origins-1967.pdf. [Accessed 18 March 2017]. pp. 8
16Crapol, Edward, 1987. Some Reflections on the Historiography of the Cold War, [Online Book Article]. Vol. 20, No. 2.
Available at: https://www.jstor.org/stable/493031?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents [Accessed 11 January 2017]. pp.
255
17 Gwinn, I. A, 2009. Towards a critical historiography of orthodox-revisionist debates on the origins of the cold war:
between disciplinary power and U.S. National identity. Masters of Philosophy. Birmingham: University of Birmingham .
pp. 52
18 Academia.edu, Gregory Brew. 2016. Imagining Empire: William Appleman Williams and the Historiography of
American Foreign Policy. [ONLINE] Available
at: http://www.academia.edu/8046913/Imagining_Empire_William_Appleman_Williams_and_the_Historiography_of_
American_Foreign_Policy. [Accessed 7 March 2017]. pp. 1-5
19Jones, Scott, 2001. Western Historiography on the Origins of the Cold War. pp. 5-6
20 Quizlet, Stephen-Decatur. 2016. All Terms For APUSH . [ONLINE] Available at: https://quizlet.com/5245568/all-terms-
for-apush-flash-cards/. [Accessed 1 March 2017].
21 Phillips , Dennis , 2007. The tragedy of American Diplomacy: A tribute to the legacy of William Appleman Williams ,
Vol. 26, No. 2., Australia New Zealand American Studies Association pp. 94
2
