1. Cultural psychology Heine:
- Cultural psychology: psychological processes differ across cultures – these processes
arise from evolutionary-shaped biological potentials adjusting to the culture the person is
developing in. But culture can also emerge from psychology (how people interact).
- WEIRD (Western, Educated, Industrialised, Rich, Democratic).
- Self-concept can be (present in children as well):
- independent (individualistic), which is self-consistent (which is associated with
well-being). They have insider phenomenological experiences and view
themselves positively. They use approach motivation. They see themselves as
stable and the world as flexible (incremental theory of the world). They want to
stick out and be unique. Relationships are voluntary and should be beneficial to
the individual (higher relational mobility).
- interdependent (collectivistic), which is flexible and so has several stable,
context-dependent self-concepts. They have outside phenomenological
experiences (perspective of audience). They view themselves negatively for
self-improvement. They use avoidance motivation (e.g. not taking risks like
gambling). They see themselves as flexible and the world as fixed (entity theory
of the world). They want to fit in. Relationships are fixed into the network you are
born into (lower relational mobility).
- Multicultural selves:
- They have multiple self-concepts that are simultaneously accessible. They are
blended into one.
- Frame-switching: activates different self-concepts depending on the
situation/primes. People who see their cultural identities as integrated rather than
in opposition are more likely to frame switch.
2. Individualism vs. Collectivism Ma/Schoeneman:
- 20 statements test used to assess how one saw themselves and their self-concept.
- Kenyan vs. American students
- Hypothesis (they were all accepted):
- African tribes-> collectivistic self-concept
- Nairobi residents are less collectivist as it is the capital and can have effects of
modernisation.
- Americans -> individualistic self-concept
- Women -> more collectivistic as they stay at home and have less contact with the
Western culture.
- Methodology: in order to measure items, they were attributes/groups created on the
basis of social/individual characteristics
- Limitations:
- Some participants couldn’t read.
- Translators were needed.
- Small sample size.
- Tribe members didn’t want to do the interview alone and were accompanied
which could have affected their responses.
3. Subjective culture Triandis:
- Culture: human-made part of the environment
, - Subjective culture: language, politics, habits, etc.
- Material culture: food, houses, etc.
- Subcultures: emerge because people share other elements, such as gender, physical
type, neighbourhood, occupation, standard of living, resources, climates, etc.
- Categories in subject culture: Some cultures have many words for a particular domain,
others have few words
- Etic: refers to a universal quality and it is used when comparing cultures eTic, t=todos
cultures
- Emic: culture-specific quality/association and it is used when describing cultures and its
where stereotypes originate. eMic, m=my culture
- Attitudes: people's emotional and evaluative responses to various objects, ideas, or
concepts.
- Beliefs: something that someone accepts as true or not. A strong opinion.
- Norms: ideas about behaviour expected of members of a group.
- Tight cultures: must behave exactly as norms specify.
- Loose cultures: one can deviate from the norms.
- Prescriptive = good things, proscriptive = things that shouldn’t be done
- Values: principles or standards of behaviour on what is important in life.
- Roles: special categories of norms. They are the expected behaviours associated with
specific positions or statuses within a society.
4. Horizontal and vertical individualism and collectivism Triandis/Michele
- Horizontal Individualism assesses the extent to which individuals strive to be distinct
without desiring special status.
- Horizontal Collectivism assesses the extent to which individuals emphasize
interdependence but "do not submit easily to authority."
- Vertical Individualism assesses the extent to which individuals strive to be distinct and
desire special status.
- Vertical Collectivism assesses the extent to which individuals emphasize
interdependence and competition with out-groups.
- The defining attributes of individualism and collectivism are:
- The definition of the self, personal/collective, independent/interdependent.
- Personal goals that can have priority over in-group goals or vice versa.
- The emphasis on exchange rather than communal relationships or the emphasis
on rationality rather than relatedness.
- The importance of attitudes and norms as determinants of social behaviour.
5. Cultural psychology Heine:
- Two contrasting views in culture and psychology:
- Psychological processes are essentially the same everywhere.
- Psychological processes emerge differently according to the cultural context.
- Universality heavily depends on how we define our construct. The level of abstraction we
use influences the success we'll have in identifying evidence for universality.
- Levels of universality:
- Nonuniversal: cultural invention, that is not cognitively available for all cultures.
E.g. Abacus.
, - Existential universal: exists but is used differently in different cultures. E.g.
Motivation (approach vs. avoidance)
- Functional universal: has variation in accessibility. E.g. Money.
- Accessibility universal: there is no variation between cultures. E.g. Practice helps
you improve.
6. Types of comparative studies in cross-cultural psychology van de Vijver:
- First dimension: are contextual factors included in the study? Such as socioeconomics,
education, and age.
- Pro of including: You can do more comparisons between more cultures.
- Con of not including: The differences might seem bigger.
- Second dimension: exploratory or hypothesis-testing studies?
- Pro of exploratory: openness is good for initial studies.
- Con of not exploratory: openness can be difficult.
- Pro of hypothesis: good for interpretation.
- Con of hypothesis: not as broad.
- Third dimension: Are structure-oriented or level-oriented research questions addressed?
- Structure-oriented: Want to understand the difference, not just measure them.
More abstract, not as quantifiable.
- Level oriented: the size of the difference, more measuring and specific.
Comparisons based on scores.
Examples:
1. Do Americans and Chinese people differ when they talk about emotion?
2. Is the model of the big 5 applicable all over the world?
3. Do American and Chinese people differ when they talk about emotion based on their
socio-economic status?
4. Can higher socio-economic status predict the difference between cultures when it comes
to this model?
5. IQ comparison of two countries.
6. Apply IQ models all over the world?
7. IQ comparison of two countries based on socio-economic or other contextual factors?
8. Would higher socio-economic status predict a higher IQ of China or America?
- Cultural psychology: psychological processes differ across cultures – these processes
arise from evolutionary-shaped biological potentials adjusting to the culture the person is
developing in. But culture can also emerge from psychology (how people interact).
- WEIRD (Western, Educated, Industrialised, Rich, Democratic).
- Self-concept can be (present in children as well):
- independent (individualistic), which is self-consistent (which is associated with
well-being). They have insider phenomenological experiences and view
themselves positively. They use approach motivation. They see themselves as
stable and the world as flexible (incremental theory of the world). They want to
stick out and be unique. Relationships are voluntary and should be beneficial to
the individual (higher relational mobility).
- interdependent (collectivistic), which is flexible and so has several stable,
context-dependent self-concepts. They have outside phenomenological
experiences (perspective of audience). They view themselves negatively for
self-improvement. They use avoidance motivation (e.g. not taking risks like
gambling). They see themselves as flexible and the world as fixed (entity theory
of the world). They want to fit in. Relationships are fixed into the network you are
born into (lower relational mobility).
- Multicultural selves:
- They have multiple self-concepts that are simultaneously accessible. They are
blended into one.
- Frame-switching: activates different self-concepts depending on the
situation/primes. People who see their cultural identities as integrated rather than
in opposition are more likely to frame switch.
2. Individualism vs. Collectivism Ma/Schoeneman:
- 20 statements test used to assess how one saw themselves and their self-concept.
- Kenyan vs. American students
- Hypothesis (they were all accepted):
- African tribes-> collectivistic self-concept
- Nairobi residents are less collectivist as it is the capital and can have effects of
modernisation.
- Americans -> individualistic self-concept
- Women -> more collectivistic as they stay at home and have less contact with the
Western culture.
- Methodology: in order to measure items, they were attributes/groups created on the
basis of social/individual characteristics
- Limitations:
- Some participants couldn’t read.
- Translators were needed.
- Small sample size.
- Tribe members didn’t want to do the interview alone and were accompanied
which could have affected their responses.
3. Subjective culture Triandis:
- Culture: human-made part of the environment
, - Subjective culture: language, politics, habits, etc.
- Material culture: food, houses, etc.
- Subcultures: emerge because people share other elements, such as gender, physical
type, neighbourhood, occupation, standard of living, resources, climates, etc.
- Categories in subject culture: Some cultures have many words for a particular domain,
others have few words
- Etic: refers to a universal quality and it is used when comparing cultures eTic, t=todos
cultures
- Emic: culture-specific quality/association and it is used when describing cultures and its
where stereotypes originate. eMic, m=my culture
- Attitudes: people's emotional and evaluative responses to various objects, ideas, or
concepts.
- Beliefs: something that someone accepts as true or not. A strong opinion.
- Norms: ideas about behaviour expected of members of a group.
- Tight cultures: must behave exactly as norms specify.
- Loose cultures: one can deviate from the norms.
- Prescriptive = good things, proscriptive = things that shouldn’t be done
- Values: principles or standards of behaviour on what is important in life.
- Roles: special categories of norms. They are the expected behaviours associated with
specific positions or statuses within a society.
4. Horizontal and vertical individualism and collectivism Triandis/Michele
- Horizontal Individualism assesses the extent to which individuals strive to be distinct
without desiring special status.
- Horizontal Collectivism assesses the extent to which individuals emphasize
interdependence but "do not submit easily to authority."
- Vertical Individualism assesses the extent to which individuals strive to be distinct and
desire special status.
- Vertical Collectivism assesses the extent to which individuals emphasize
interdependence and competition with out-groups.
- The defining attributes of individualism and collectivism are:
- The definition of the self, personal/collective, independent/interdependent.
- Personal goals that can have priority over in-group goals or vice versa.
- The emphasis on exchange rather than communal relationships or the emphasis
on rationality rather than relatedness.
- The importance of attitudes and norms as determinants of social behaviour.
5. Cultural psychology Heine:
- Two contrasting views in culture and psychology:
- Psychological processes are essentially the same everywhere.
- Psychological processes emerge differently according to the cultural context.
- Universality heavily depends on how we define our construct. The level of abstraction we
use influences the success we'll have in identifying evidence for universality.
- Levels of universality:
- Nonuniversal: cultural invention, that is not cognitively available for all cultures.
E.g. Abacus.
, - Existential universal: exists but is used differently in different cultures. E.g.
Motivation (approach vs. avoidance)
- Functional universal: has variation in accessibility. E.g. Money.
- Accessibility universal: there is no variation between cultures. E.g. Practice helps
you improve.
6. Types of comparative studies in cross-cultural psychology van de Vijver:
- First dimension: are contextual factors included in the study? Such as socioeconomics,
education, and age.
- Pro of including: You can do more comparisons between more cultures.
- Con of not including: The differences might seem bigger.
- Second dimension: exploratory or hypothesis-testing studies?
- Pro of exploratory: openness is good for initial studies.
- Con of not exploratory: openness can be difficult.
- Pro of hypothesis: good for interpretation.
- Con of hypothesis: not as broad.
- Third dimension: Are structure-oriented or level-oriented research questions addressed?
- Structure-oriented: Want to understand the difference, not just measure them.
More abstract, not as quantifiable.
- Level oriented: the size of the difference, more measuring and specific.
Comparisons based on scores.
Examples:
1. Do Americans and Chinese people differ when they talk about emotion?
2. Is the model of the big 5 applicable all over the world?
3. Do American and Chinese people differ when they talk about emotion based on their
socio-economic status?
4. Can higher socio-economic status predict the difference between cultures when it comes
to this model?
5. IQ comparison of two countries.
6. Apply IQ models all over the world?
7. IQ comparison of two countries based on socio-economic or other contextual factors?
8. Would higher socio-economic status predict a higher IQ of China or America?
