GENERAL PRINCIPLES
AND METHODS OF TEACHING IN BASIC SCHOOLS
UNIT ONE
DEFINING TEACHING AND INSTRUCTION
THE NATURE OF TEACHING
The nature of teaching can be inferred from the various definitions that have been given to
teaching. Some of these definitions include the following:
Fleming (1965) defined teaching as any situation in which one person tries to pass to
another his knowledge (belief), feeling (appreciation), purpose or action.
Nacino-Brown et al (1990) emphasise the transfer of skills, attitude and knowledge from
one person to another. Their emphasis is on the goal of teaching which is to bring about a
desired change in the learner.
Melby (1963) proposed that meaningful teaching calls for the full and active participation of
learners. This task requires the teacher to:
Accept new ideas and experiences
Create an appropriate environment for learning
Recognise the individual differences of learners.
Koomson et al (2000) explained that teaching is an activity performed by a more
experienced and knowledgeable person and aimed at helping the less experienced person
to learn
From the discussions above we have been made to understand the following;
a. Teaching involves the transfer of knowledge, feelings, skills and attitudes.
b. Teaching involves equipping the learner with the ability to solve problems of life.
c. The teacher should be abreast on time, be current, create conducive atmosphere
for learning and recognise individual differences.
d. Teaching cannot happen without the learner but learning can happen without
necessarily the teacher.
e. Teaching should nurture self learning in pupils
f. Finally, teaching is a face-to-face interpersonal relationship between the teacher
and the learner, the educator and the educand.
Types of Teaching as a Term
FORMAL TEACHING
The teacher gives instructions to the learner to follow. He adopts the class teaching method.
He rewards and punishes for good and bad behaviours respectively. What is to be taught is
structured. The normal class teaching of subjects in which the teacher dominated the
teaching and learning process is a typical example of formal teaching.
INFORMAL TEACHING
PEDAGOGY DEPARTMENT, AKROKERRI COLLEGE Page 1
,The teacher is seen as a facilitator instead of a director. In the informal teaching, the teacher
presents the learning materials to the learners.
The learners fully participate in the lesson and the class is not controlled by rewards and
punishment but by good planning of the lesson activities by the teacher.
TEACHING AS AN ART/SCIENCE
Searles (1967) described teaching as an art as well as a science.
Teaching as an art is explained in terms of the different skills or tools, verbal and non-
verbal communication skills and materials and the learning activities presented in a
meaningful way to pupils.
In addition a positive personality becomes important as it influences the outcome of
teaching giving meaning to teaching as an art. As an art, teaching is again influenced by
personality. Different people have their ways of teaching. Some people are said to be natural
teachers though they don’t have any training in teaching methodology.
Individual people teach according to their personalities. In such situations teaching
becomes an art. For instance Jesus Christ, Aristotle, Socrates, Buddha etc undertook teaching
as an art.
Teaching as a science is seen in terms of its structured methodology and the application of
scientifically tested principles and theories that lead to stabilised patterns in the teaching-
learning process.
Teaching as a science is also seen in terms of its dynamism. Some of the theories of teaching
have either undergone or are undergoing modifications just as the discipline of science.
DISTINCTION BETWEEN TEACHING AND INSTRUCTION
Instruction can be defined as the structured, ordered or organised information that learners
receive in a designed programme. Instruction is therefore a structured, organised activity to
promote learning
Teaching on the other hand is both random and structured. Parents can teach or educate
their children intentionally or unintentionally. Siblings teach each other and other members
of the community teach children in one way or the other. These take place apart from the
organised and structured teaching that takes place in the classroom.
Searles pointed out that teaching is both an art and a science but instruction is purely a
science. In order to be an effective teacher one needs to be abreast on the science of
instruction.
THE PURPOSE OF INSTRUCTION
Searles (1976) identified 3 purposes of instruction as helping the individual to
Discover, create and express meaning.
Develop a quest for knowledge.
Develop a rational power.
THE BASIC INSTRUCTIONAL MODEL
Instruction may be viewed both as a system and as a process, each with clearly defined parts.
PEDAGOGY DEPARTMENT, AKROKERRI COLLEGE Page 2
,Instruction as a system (structure):
A system is made up of interrelated parts which work together for a common goal.
Instruction as a system indicates that there are parts that are related and at the same time
connected to form a whole. The parts in instruction include the teacher/instructor on one
hand and the learner/pupil/student on the other hand, and the search image. The search
image is the item to be learnt. It is made up of organised information that is easier to be
learnt and could be imparted to the learner during instruction. The learner/pupil/student is the
individual to whom the search image is directed. The instructor is the one who imparts and
directs knowledge or the search image.
FEEDBACK
I L
N E
S S I COGNITIVE A
T E M R
R A A AFFECTIVE N
U R G E
C C E R
PSYCHOMOTO
T H R
O
R
FEEDBACK
Instruction as a process:
This is the way or strategy through which the instructor imparts knowledge to the learner.
The process of instruction just like the system has parts that are related and these form the
instructional model. Four of such teaching models are
a. the stripped down model by Robert Glaser,
b. the school learning model by John Carrol
c. the social interaction model by Ned Flanders,
d. the computer based teaching model by Lawrence Stolurow and Daniel Davie
The basic teaching model also known as the stripped down model divides the instructional
process into four related parts. These are:
a. instructional objectives
b. entering behaviour
c. instructional procedure
d. performance assessment.
FACTORS TO CONSIDER IN PLANNING INSTRUCTION
1. Educational goals.
2. Objectives.
3. The nature of the topic and its place in the syllabus and the scheme of work.
4. Mode of instruction
5. Knowledge of content
6. Learner characteristics
7. Learning environment
PEDAGOGY DEPARTMENT, AKROKERRI COLLEGE Page 3
, THE PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING AND LEARNING
WHAT ARE PRINCIPLES
Principles are rules that guide one’s behaviour. Others see principles as personal ideas they
follow to behave desirably. Generally speaking, principles are rules, laws and beliefs about
how things happen and/or the way one should behave.
IMPORTANCE OF PRINCIPLES
1. Principles are the basis upon which good decisions and plans of action are based.
2. Also principles guide the thoughts of men and helps individuals to avoid decision by
impulse.
3. Again by following teaching principles, teachers readily and voluntarily adjust and
readjust their teaching methods to bring efficiency.
4. Principles help the teacher to understand the different methods of teaching and
thereby select the most appropriate for a particular class or lesson.
5. With the principles for effective classroom teaching in mind it echoes to the teacher
the best and educationally accepted manner of managing and controlling his class.
CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD TEACHER
1. A good teacher should create a situation for the learners to feel at home.
2. A good teacher is one who creates a rich learning environment in the classroom.
3. A good teacher is the one who has the ability to reduce the content to meet the
individual learner’s need and as well use and vary his method to the satisfaction of the
individual learners.
4. A good teacher is the one whose presence in the classroom raise high love for
schooling in the learners.
PROFESSIONAL SKILLS OF THE GOOD TEACHER
1. Organisation and careful planning of the classroom routines
2. Very good teacher-learner interaction.
3. Using varied activities to explain lessons.
4. Developing confidence when teaching.
5. Ability to handle problems timely before they get out of control.
6. Avoiding being temperamental at the misbehaviours of the learners.
CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD TEACHING
Teaching is an interaction between the learners as well as learning materials and has some
peculiar characteristics that make it unique.
1. The teacher’s teaching relates to the learners’ abilities, needs and interests.
2. The teacher must have thorough knowledge in the subject matter for effective
delivery.
3. The method used by the teacher should seek to develop the creativity of the
learners.
4. The method used by the teacher should develop in the learners, traits of good
emotions such as sympathy, empathy, love and concern for others.
5. The teacher should create conducive atmosphere through his lesson delivery.
6. Teaching should address the full development of the learners.
TEACHING ACTIVITIES
According to Koomson et al (2002), teaching involves many activities among which are:
1. Talking and chalking.
PEDAGOGY DEPARTMENT, AKROKERRI COLLEGE Page 4
AND METHODS OF TEACHING IN BASIC SCHOOLS
UNIT ONE
DEFINING TEACHING AND INSTRUCTION
THE NATURE OF TEACHING
The nature of teaching can be inferred from the various definitions that have been given to
teaching. Some of these definitions include the following:
Fleming (1965) defined teaching as any situation in which one person tries to pass to
another his knowledge (belief), feeling (appreciation), purpose or action.
Nacino-Brown et al (1990) emphasise the transfer of skills, attitude and knowledge from
one person to another. Their emphasis is on the goal of teaching which is to bring about a
desired change in the learner.
Melby (1963) proposed that meaningful teaching calls for the full and active participation of
learners. This task requires the teacher to:
Accept new ideas and experiences
Create an appropriate environment for learning
Recognise the individual differences of learners.
Koomson et al (2000) explained that teaching is an activity performed by a more
experienced and knowledgeable person and aimed at helping the less experienced person
to learn
From the discussions above we have been made to understand the following;
a. Teaching involves the transfer of knowledge, feelings, skills and attitudes.
b. Teaching involves equipping the learner with the ability to solve problems of life.
c. The teacher should be abreast on time, be current, create conducive atmosphere
for learning and recognise individual differences.
d. Teaching cannot happen without the learner but learning can happen without
necessarily the teacher.
e. Teaching should nurture self learning in pupils
f. Finally, teaching is a face-to-face interpersonal relationship between the teacher
and the learner, the educator and the educand.
Types of Teaching as a Term
FORMAL TEACHING
The teacher gives instructions to the learner to follow. He adopts the class teaching method.
He rewards and punishes for good and bad behaviours respectively. What is to be taught is
structured. The normal class teaching of subjects in which the teacher dominated the
teaching and learning process is a typical example of formal teaching.
INFORMAL TEACHING
PEDAGOGY DEPARTMENT, AKROKERRI COLLEGE Page 1
,The teacher is seen as a facilitator instead of a director. In the informal teaching, the teacher
presents the learning materials to the learners.
The learners fully participate in the lesson and the class is not controlled by rewards and
punishment but by good planning of the lesson activities by the teacher.
TEACHING AS AN ART/SCIENCE
Searles (1967) described teaching as an art as well as a science.
Teaching as an art is explained in terms of the different skills or tools, verbal and non-
verbal communication skills and materials and the learning activities presented in a
meaningful way to pupils.
In addition a positive personality becomes important as it influences the outcome of
teaching giving meaning to teaching as an art. As an art, teaching is again influenced by
personality. Different people have their ways of teaching. Some people are said to be natural
teachers though they don’t have any training in teaching methodology.
Individual people teach according to their personalities. In such situations teaching
becomes an art. For instance Jesus Christ, Aristotle, Socrates, Buddha etc undertook teaching
as an art.
Teaching as a science is seen in terms of its structured methodology and the application of
scientifically tested principles and theories that lead to stabilised patterns in the teaching-
learning process.
Teaching as a science is also seen in terms of its dynamism. Some of the theories of teaching
have either undergone or are undergoing modifications just as the discipline of science.
DISTINCTION BETWEEN TEACHING AND INSTRUCTION
Instruction can be defined as the structured, ordered or organised information that learners
receive in a designed programme. Instruction is therefore a structured, organised activity to
promote learning
Teaching on the other hand is both random and structured. Parents can teach or educate
their children intentionally or unintentionally. Siblings teach each other and other members
of the community teach children in one way or the other. These take place apart from the
organised and structured teaching that takes place in the classroom.
Searles pointed out that teaching is both an art and a science but instruction is purely a
science. In order to be an effective teacher one needs to be abreast on the science of
instruction.
THE PURPOSE OF INSTRUCTION
Searles (1976) identified 3 purposes of instruction as helping the individual to
Discover, create and express meaning.
Develop a quest for knowledge.
Develop a rational power.
THE BASIC INSTRUCTIONAL MODEL
Instruction may be viewed both as a system and as a process, each with clearly defined parts.
PEDAGOGY DEPARTMENT, AKROKERRI COLLEGE Page 2
,Instruction as a system (structure):
A system is made up of interrelated parts which work together for a common goal.
Instruction as a system indicates that there are parts that are related and at the same time
connected to form a whole. The parts in instruction include the teacher/instructor on one
hand and the learner/pupil/student on the other hand, and the search image. The search
image is the item to be learnt. It is made up of organised information that is easier to be
learnt and could be imparted to the learner during instruction. The learner/pupil/student is the
individual to whom the search image is directed. The instructor is the one who imparts and
directs knowledge or the search image.
FEEDBACK
I L
N E
S S I COGNITIVE A
T E M R
R A A AFFECTIVE N
U R G E
C C E R
PSYCHOMOTO
T H R
O
R
FEEDBACK
Instruction as a process:
This is the way or strategy through which the instructor imparts knowledge to the learner.
The process of instruction just like the system has parts that are related and these form the
instructional model. Four of such teaching models are
a. the stripped down model by Robert Glaser,
b. the school learning model by John Carrol
c. the social interaction model by Ned Flanders,
d. the computer based teaching model by Lawrence Stolurow and Daniel Davie
The basic teaching model also known as the stripped down model divides the instructional
process into four related parts. These are:
a. instructional objectives
b. entering behaviour
c. instructional procedure
d. performance assessment.
FACTORS TO CONSIDER IN PLANNING INSTRUCTION
1. Educational goals.
2. Objectives.
3. The nature of the topic and its place in the syllabus and the scheme of work.
4. Mode of instruction
5. Knowledge of content
6. Learner characteristics
7. Learning environment
PEDAGOGY DEPARTMENT, AKROKERRI COLLEGE Page 3
, THE PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING AND LEARNING
WHAT ARE PRINCIPLES
Principles are rules that guide one’s behaviour. Others see principles as personal ideas they
follow to behave desirably. Generally speaking, principles are rules, laws and beliefs about
how things happen and/or the way one should behave.
IMPORTANCE OF PRINCIPLES
1. Principles are the basis upon which good decisions and plans of action are based.
2. Also principles guide the thoughts of men and helps individuals to avoid decision by
impulse.
3. Again by following teaching principles, teachers readily and voluntarily adjust and
readjust their teaching methods to bring efficiency.
4. Principles help the teacher to understand the different methods of teaching and
thereby select the most appropriate for a particular class or lesson.
5. With the principles for effective classroom teaching in mind it echoes to the teacher
the best and educationally accepted manner of managing and controlling his class.
CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD TEACHER
1. A good teacher should create a situation for the learners to feel at home.
2. A good teacher is one who creates a rich learning environment in the classroom.
3. A good teacher is the one who has the ability to reduce the content to meet the
individual learner’s need and as well use and vary his method to the satisfaction of the
individual learners.
4. A good teacher is the one whose presence in the classroom raise high love for
schooling in the learners.
PROFESSIONAL SKILLS OF THE GOOD TEACHER
1. Organisation and careful planning of the classroom routines
2. Very good teacher-learner interaction.
3. Using varied activities to explain lessons.
4. Developing confidence when teaching.
5. Ability to handle problems timely before they get out of control.
6. Avoiding being temperamental at the misbehaviours of the learners.
CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD TEACHING
Teaching is an interaction between the learners as well as learning materials and has some
peculiar characteristics that make it unique.
1. The teacher’s teaching relates to the learners’ abilities, needs and interests.
2. The teacher must have thorough knowledge in the subject matter for effective
delivery.
3. The method used by the teacher should seek to develop the creativity of the
learners.
4. The method used by the teacher should develop in the learners, traits of good
emotions such as sympathy, empathy, love and concern for others.
5. The teacher should create conducive atmosphere through his lesson delivery.
6. Teaching should address the full development of the learners.
TEACHING ACTIVITIES
According to Koomson et al (2002), teaching involves many activities among which are:
1. Talking and chalking.
PEDAGOGY DEPARTMENT, AKROKERRI COLLEGE Page 4
