1. Explain the function and process of a neuron’s refractory period.
The neuro’s refractory period is closely linked to physiological psychology.
Physiological psychology is said to be a subdivision of behavioral neuroscience. It the
branch that of psychology that deals with the correlation between the physical operation
of an organism and how the organism behaves. Physiological psychology pays close
attention to the normal and pathological physiological process effects that it can have on
a person’s mental life. Physiological psychology is when we examine the different
problems and issues that come about. Many people like to refer to these issues and
problems as “mind- body” problems. The refractory period refers to the period of time in
which the cell isn’t able to repeat an action potential. The action potential is the amount
of time that it takes for an excitable membrane to respond to another stimulus after being
at its resting state of being (Brigham Young University - Idaho, 2019). This is the period
that occurs after the action potential becomes impossible or it becomes more difficult for
an action potential to be fired. This is usually caused by an inactivation of sodium
channels and the initiation of more potassium networks of the membrane.
Even if another stimulus is given to a neuron, it will not give way to a second action
potential. The refractory period consists of two subcategories. The first one is the
absolute refractory period. The absolute refractory relates to repolarization and
depolarization. It also corresponds with approximately the complete duration of action
potential. During this phase, the neuron is unable to send the proper stimulation to a
muscle or a nerve. The other period or subcategory is the relative refractory period. This
refers to the period that is connected to the hyperpolarization. The relative refractory
period comes directly after the absolute refractory period. If we didn’t have any neurons,
it would be impossible for us to be able to feel anything (Spielman & et al., 2014).
2. Describe how the brain transports essential chemicals.
The human brain is one of the most amazing organs in the human body. It has the ability
to regulate the different functions of the body. It also has the ability to interpret
information that is received from the external world and represents the fundamental
nature of the mind and soul. When essential chemicals of the brain are mentioned, it is
typically referring to glucose, amino acids, ketone bodies, choline, purines, protein, lipids
(fats), minerals and vitamins. The brain has several transport mechanisms. Any small or
uncharged molecules such as oxygen and carbon dioxide are able to pass through freely
without any hesitation. There are special protein channels that are located in the walls of
the endothelial cells. They form what is called the blood-brain barrier (BBB). These cells
are responsible for transporting the water that our body needs to survive. The main fuel
for the brain is glucose. Amino acids, purines, choline, iron, and hormones can be
actively transported into the brain. Active transport is a protein-mediated process that
uses energy in order to pump out the different chemicals from the blood and helps it
move into the brain (Pardridge, 1984, p. 246).
This study source was downloaded by 100000873423108 from CourseHero.com on 10-12-2023 09:14:11 GMT -05:00
https://www.coursehero.com/file/52935486/PSYC525-Midtermdocx/
, The blood–brain barrier (BBB) is there to protect the neural tissues from changes in
blood toxins and composition. The extracellular concentrations of potassium, hormones,
and amino acids in other parts of the body are able to change frequently. The changes
occur more often after a person has participated in some form of exercise, after eating a
meal or whenever a person’s body is under a significant amount of stress. The blood–
brain barrier (BBB) also helps prevent the brain from being exposed to dangerous
elements that could threaten or disturb the central nervous system (CNS). This can also
prevent damages that are caused by various viruses and other dangerous chemical or
teratogens that surrounds us (Hawkins, O'Kane, Simpson, & Viña, 2006).
3. Describe the main properties of neuropeptides (neuromodulators).
In order to answer this question, it is important to understand what neuropeptides
(neuromodulators) are. They are the small protein-like molecules that are used by neurons
to communicate with each other. They are found in large granular vesicles (LGVs).
Thanks to research in biochemistry, physiology and endocrinology, neuropeptides were
discovered. That was over forty years ago. Neuropeptides are considered to be a very
diverse group of molecules that are responsible for regulating different behavioral and
cellular processes that take place in all animals whether they are invertebrate or
vertebrate. The neuropeptides can also act as neurotransmitters. They are released at the
synaptic or non-synaptic sites. The peptide then signals the control developmental
processes that are responsible for specific behaviors or support to the mechanisms for
learning and storing memory. It is common to find co-transmission when talking about
peptide and non-peptide signaling molecules (Tibor, 2010).
4. Describe the basic functions and components of the autonomic nervous system.
The autonomic nervous system is made up of a complex set of neurons that negotiate
internal homeostasis without deliberate intervention or voluntary control. There are two
parts of the autonomic nervous system (ANS); sympathetic (SNS) and parasympathetic
nervous systems (PNS). The overall job of the autonomic nervous system is to regulate
and maintain a person’s blood pressure, their breathing. It helps influence proper
digestion, regular urination and regulates sexual arousal. It controls our cardiovascular
system and many of our other systems within our body system. The autonomic nervous
system can change the rate and the way the heart contracts. This includes the constriction
and dilation of the blood vessels. This is how it can influence a person’s blood pressure.
The autonomic nervous system also plays a huge role in the skeletal and smooth muscle
fibers throughout the body. It can change the metabolism of glucose and cause the pupil
dilation in a person’s eyes.
The sympathetic nervous system (SNS) is responsible for controlling the “flight-or-
fight” responses. This means that the SNS is also responsible for the release of stress
hormones, regulating the metabolism of cells and also maintaining homeostasis in an
organism.
While the parasympathetic nervous system is known for controlling the “feed-or-breed”
This study source was downloaded by 100000873423108 from CourseHero.com on 10-12-2023 09:14:11 GMT -05:00
https://www.coursehero.com/file/52935486/PSYC525-Midtermdocx/
The neuro’s refractory period is closely linked to physiological psychology.
Physiological psychology is said to be a subdivision of behavioral neuroscience. It the
branch that of psychology that deals with the correlation between the physical operation
of an organism and how the organism behaves. Physiological psychology pays close
attention to the normal and pathological physiological process effects that it can have on
a person’s mental life. Physiological psychology is when we examine the different
problems and issues that come about. Many people like to refer to these issues and
problems as “mind- body” problems. The refractory period refers to the period of time in
which the cell isn’t able to repeat an action potential. The action potential is the amount
of time that it takes for an excitable membrane to respond to another stimulus after being
at its resting state of being (Brigham Young University - Idaho, 2019). This is the period
that occurs after the action potential becomes impossible or it becomes more difficult for
an action potential to be fired. This is usually caused by an inactivation of sodium
channels and the initiation of more potassium networks of the membrane.
Even if another stimulus is given to a neuron, it will not give way to a second action
potential. The refractory period consists of two subcategories. The first one is the
absolute refractory period. The absolute refractory relates to repolarization and
depolarization. It also corresponds with approximately the complete duration of action
potential. During this phase, the neuron is unable to send the proper stimulation to a
muscle or a nerve. The other period or subcategory is the relative refractory period. This
refers to the period that is connected to the hyperpolarization. The relative refractory
period comes directly after the absolute refractory period. If we didn’t have any neurons,
it would be impossible for us to be able to feel anything (Spielman & et al., 2014).
2. Describe how the brain transports essential chemicals.
The human brain is one of the most amazing organs in the human body. It has the ability
to regulate the different functions of the body. It also has the ability to interpret
information that is received from the external world and represents the fundamental
nature of the mind and soul. When essential chemicals of the brain are mentioned, it is
typically referring to glucose, amino acids, ketone bodies, choline, purines, protein, lipids
(fats), minerals and vitamins. The brain has several transport mechanisms. Any small or
uncharged molecules such as oxygen and carbon dioxide are able to pass through freely
without any hesitation. There are special protein channels that are located in the walls of
the endothelial cells. They form what is called the blood-brain barrier (BBB). These cells
are responsible for transporting the water that our body needs to survive. The main fuel
for the brain is glucose. Amino acids, purines, choline, iron, and hormones can be
actively transported into the brain. Active transport is a protein-mediated process that
uses energy in order to pump out the different chemicals from the blood and helps it
move into the brain (Pardridge, 1984, p. 246).
This study source was downloaded by 100000873423108 from CourseHero.com on 10-12-2023 09:14:11 GMT -05:00
https://www.coursehero.com/file/52935486/PSYC525-Midtermdocx/
, The blood–brain barrier (BBB) is there to protect the neural tissues from changes in
blood toxins and composition. The extracellular concentrations of potassium, hormones,
and amino acids in other parts of the body are able to change frequently. The changes
occur more often after a person has participated in some form of exercise, after eating a
meal or whenever a person’s body is under a significant amount of stress. The blood–
brain barrier (BBB) also helps prevent the brain from being exposed to dangerous
elements that could threaten or disturb the central nervous system (CNS). This can also
prevent damages that are caused by various viruses and other dangerous chemical or
teratogens that surrounds us (Hawkins, O'Kane, Simpson, & Viña, 2006).
3. Describe the main properties of neuropeptides (neuromodulators).
In order to answer this question, it is important to understand what neuropeptides
(neuromodulators) are. They are the small protein-like molecules that are used by neurons
to communicate with each other. They are found in large granular vesicles (LGVs).
Thanks to research in biochemistry, physiology and endocrinology, neuropeptides were
discovered. That was over forty years ago. Neuropeptides are considered to be a very
diverse group of molecules that are responsible for regulating different behavioral and
cellular processes that take place in all animals whether they are invertebrate or
vertebrate. The neuropeptides can also act as neurotransmitters. They are released at the
synaptic or non-synaptic sites. The peptide then signals the control developmental
processes that are responsible for specific behaviors or support to the mechanisms for
learning and storing memory. It is common to find co-transmission when talking about
peptide and non-peptide signaling molecules (Tibor, 2010).
4. Describe the basic functions and components of the autonomic nervous system.
The autonomic nervous system is made up of a complex set of neurons that negotiate
internal homeostasis without deliberate intervention or voluntary control. There are two
parts of the autonomic nervous system (ANS); sympathetic (SNS) and parasympathetic
nervous systems (PNS). The overall job of the autonomic nervous system is to regulate
and maintain a person’s blood pressure, their breathing. It helps influence proper
digestion, regular urination and regulates sexual arousal. It controls our cardiovascular
system and many of our other systems within our body system. The autonomic nervous
system can change the rate and the way the heart contracts. This includes the constriction
and dilation of the blood vessels. This is how it can influence a person’s blood pressure.
The autonomic nervous system also plays a huge role in the skeletal and smooth muscle
fibers throughout the body. It can change the metabolism of glucose and cause the pupil
dilation in a person’s eyes.
The sympathetic nervous system (SNS) is responsible for controlling the “flight-or-
fight” responses. This means that the SNS is also responsible for the release of stress
hormones, regulating the metabolism of cells and also maintaining homeostasis in an
organism.
While the parasympathetic nervous system is known for controlling the “feed-or-breed”
This study source was downloaded by 100000873423108 from CourseHero.com on 10-12-2023 09:14:11 GMT -05:00
https://www.coursehero.com/file/52935486/PSYC525-Midtermdocx/
