One
An Introduction to Codes and Coding
Any researcher who wishes to become proficient at doing
qualitative analysis must learn to code well and
easily.The excellence of the research rests in large part
on the excellence of the coding.
Purposes of the Manual
The three primary purposes of The Coding
Manual for Qualitative Researchers are:
• to briefly discuss the functions of codes, coding,
and analytic memo writ- ing during the
qualitative data collection and analytic
processes
• to profile a selected yet diverse repertoire of
coding methods generally applied in qualitative
data analysis, and
• to provide readers sources, descriptions,
examples, recommended applica- tions, and
exercises for coding and further analyzing
qualitative data.
This manual does not address such matters as
qualitative research design or how to conduct
,interviews or participant observation fieldwork.
These topics are already masterfully discussed in
other textbooks. The Coding Manual for
Qualitative Researchers is intended as a reference to
supplement those existing works. This manual
focuses exclusively on codes and coding and how
they play a role in the qualitative data analytic
process. For newcomers to qualitative inquiry, it
presents a repertoire of coding methods in broad
brushstrokes. Additional information and extended
discussion of the methods can be found in most of
the cited sources. Grounded theory (discussed in
Chapter Two), for example, is elegantly profiled,
streamlined, and re-envisioned in Kathy
Charmaz’s (2006) Constructing Grounded Theory: A
Practical Guide through Qualitative Analysis; while
Graham R. Gibbs’ (2007) Analyzing Qualitative
Data provides an elegant survey of basic analytic
processes.
,2 THE CODING MANUAL FOR QUALITATIVE
RESEARCHERS
The Coding Manual does not maintain
allegiance to any one specific research genre or
methodology. Throughout this book you’ll read a
breadth of perspectives on codes and coding,
sometimes purposely juxtaposed to illustrate and
highlight the diverse opinions among scholars in
the field. No one, including myself, can claim final
authority on the “best” way to code qualitative
data. In fact, there are a few instances where I take
moderate lib- erty with adapting and even renaming
prescribed coding methods for clarity or flexibility’s
sake. This is not intended to standardize
terminology within the field, but simply to employ
consistency throughout this particular man- ual. My
perspective acknowledges and promotes the
pragmatist paradigm (Patton, 2002), which chooses
“the right tool for the right job” since all research
questions, methodologies, conceptual frameworks,
and fieldwork parameters are context-specific.
I also wrote this manual because I find it
problematic (but not difficult) to teach coding in
my own qualitative research methods course. I
provide students with an array of readings about the
process from multiple sources because I have yet to
find that single satisfactory book (to me) that
focuses exclusively on the topic. General
introductory texts in qualitative inquiry are so
numerous and well-written that it becomes difficult
not to find the best one to use, but which one of
such quality works to select as the primary
textbook.This man- ual supplements introductory
, works in the subject because most limit their dis-
cussions about coding to the writer’s prescribed,
preferred, or signature methods. I wanted to provide
in a single resource a selected collection of var- ious
coding methods developed by other researchers (and
myself) that provides students and colleagues a
handy reference for classroom exercises and assign-
ments, and for their own independent research for
thesis and dissertation field- work and future
qualitative studies. But by no means is it an
exhaustive resource. I deliberately exclude such
discipline-specific methods as Behavior Coding
(which notes problematic respondent and
interviewer behaviors dur- ing survey interviews
[Singleton & Straits, 2002, p. 65]) and such
signature methods as the Davis Observation Code
system (for medical interviews [Zoppi & Epstein,
2002, p. 375]). If you need additional information
and explanation about the coding methods, check
the References.
The Coding Manual is intended primarily as a
reference work. It is not nec- essarily meant to be
read cover-to-cover, but it certainly can be if you
wish to acquaint yourself with all 29 coding methods
profiles and their analytic possi- bilities. There are,
in fact, several principles related to coding matters
not dis- cussed in the first two chapters that are
unique to some of the profiles. If you choose to
review all the contents, read selected sections at a time,
not all of them in one sitting, otherwise it can
overwhelm you. If you’re scanning the manual to see
which coding method(s) might be appropriate for
your particular study,
An Introduction to Codes and Coding
Any researcher who wishes to become proficient at doing
qualitative analysis must learn to code well and
easily.The excellence of the research rests in large part
on the excellence of the coding.
Purposes of the Manual
The three primary purposes of The Coding
Manual for Qualitative Researchers are:
• to briefly discuss the functions of codes, coding,
and analytic memo writ- ing during the
qualitative data collection and analytic
processes
• to profile a selected yet diverse repertoire of
coding methods generally applied in qualitative
data analysis, and
• to provide readers sources, descriptions,
examples, recommended applica- tions, and
exercises for coding and further analyzing
qualitative data.
This manual does not address such matters as
qualitative research design or how to conduct
,interviews or participant observation fieldwork.
These topics are already masterfully discussed in
other textbooks. The Coding Manual for
Qualitative Researchers is intended as a reference to
supplement those existing works. This manual
focuses exclusively on codes and coding and how
they play a role in the qualitative data analytic
process. For newcomers to qualitative inquiry, it
presents a repertoire of coding methods in broad
brushstrokes. Additional information and extended
discussion of the methods can be found in most of
the cited sources. Grounded theory (discussed in
Chapter Two), for example, is elegantly profiled,
streamlined, and re-envisioned in Kathy
Charmaz’s (2006) Constructing Grounded Theory: A
Practical Guide through Qualitative Analysis; while
Graham R. Gibbs’ (2007) Analyzing Qualitative
Data provides an elegant survey of basic analytic
processes.
,2 THE CODING MANUAL FOR QUALITATIVE
RESEARCHERS
The Coding Manual does not maintain
allegiance to any one specific research genre or
methodology. Throughout this book you’ll read a
breadth of perspectives on codes and coding,
sometimes purposely juxtaposed to illustrate and
highlight the diverse opinions among scholars in
the field. No one, including myself, can claim final
authority on the “best” way to code qualitative
data. In fact, there are a few instances where I take
moderate lib- erty with adapting and even renaming
prescribed coding methods for clarity or flexibility’s
sake. This is not intended to standardize
terminology within the field, but simply to employ
consistency throughout this particular man- ual. My
perspective acknowledges and promotes the
pragmatist paradigm (Patton, 2002), which chooses
“the right tool for the right job” since all research
questions, methodologies, conceptual frameworks,
and fieldwork parameters are context-specific.
I also wrote this manual because I find it
problematic (but not difficult) to teach coding in
my own qualitative research methods course. I
provide students with an array of readings about the
process from multiple sources because I have yet to
find that single satisfactory book (to me) that
focuses exclusively on the topic. General
introductory texts in qualitative inquiry are so
numerous and well-written that it becomes difficult
not to find the best one to use, but which one of
such quality works to select as the primary
textbook.This man- ual supplements introductory
, works in the subject because most limit their dis-
cussions about coding to the writer’s prescribed,
preferred, or signature methods. I wanted to provide
in a single resource a selected collection of var- ious
coding methods developed by other researchers (and
myself) that provides students and colleagues a
handy reference for classroom exercises and assign-
ments, and for their own independent research for
thesis and dissertation field- work and future
qualitative studies. But by no means is it an
exhaustive resource. I deliberately exclude such
discipline-specific methods as Behavior Coding
(which notes problematic respondent and
interviewer behaviors dur- ing survey interviews
[Singleton & Straits, 2002, p. 65]) and such
signature methods as the Davis Observation Code
system (for medical interviews [Zoppi & Epstein,
2002, p. 375]). If you need additional information
and explanation about the coding methods, check
the References.
The Coding Manual is intended primarily as a
reference work. It is not nec- essarily meant to be
read cover-to-cover, but it certainly can be if you
wish to acquaint yourself with all 29 coding methods
profiles and their analytic possi- bilities. There are,
in fact, several principles related to coding matters
not dis- cussed in the first two chapters that are
unique to some of the profiles. If you choose to
review all the contents, read selected sections at a time,
not all of them in one sitting, otherwise it can
overwhelm you. If you’re scanning the manual to see
which coding method(s) might be appropriate for
your particular study,
