Psychology 120, Psychology 120 P, Purdue PSY 120 Exam 1 Questions With Complete Solutions

What two disciplines did psychology develop from? correct answer: Philosophy and physiology 3 Misconceptions of Psychology correct answer: Three misconceptions include: - Psychology is all about treating and studying mental disorders - Psychology is based on logic and intuition. -Psychologists are best at predicting individual behavior as opposed to the behavior of a larger group of individuals. What is the definition of psychology? correct answer: Psychology is the study of behavior and the mind. 4 Goals of Psychology correct answer: The 4 goals of psychology are: - Describe - Predict -Understand -Modify What does a clinical psychologist do? correct answer: A clinical psychologist diagnoses and treats psychological disorders. What does a research psychologist do? correct answer: A research psychologist partakes in various projects and specializes in certain areas that they would like to contribute to. What does an applied psychologist do? correct answer: An applied psychologist works to find applications for the research conducted. What does a human factors psychologist do? correct answer: A human factor psychologist studies how environmental factors can affect the behavior. Empiricism correct answer: Is the idea that all knowledge stems from experience. Nativism correct answer: This is the idea that certain knowledge is innate. What is Gestalt Psychology? correct answer: This movement argues that humans have a set way of viewing the world. Structuralism correct answer: Structuralism was founded by Wilhelm Wundt and his student Edward Titchener. This is the idea that a human's immediate experience could be broken into parts that could be analyzed. Systematic introspection correct answer: Systematic introspection was a better idea for psychologists to understand the human immediate experience. -With this approach, participants in research studies would have to report their emotions and feelings as they were going through these experiences. - Freud's approach of psychoanalysis was heavily reliant on this concept. Functionalism correct answer: This theory advocated that function must be considered as opposed to only content of the mind. Behaviorism correct answer: Founded by John Watson and he believed that mental events cannot be publicly observed; psychologists should determine how changes in the environment can lead to changes in behavior. The height of this movement was the 1900s. This approach same after structuralism and functionalism Psychoanalysis correct answer: Freud's theory that the mind and its contents MUST be fully analyzed before treatment can begin. Humanistic Psychology correct answer: In response to the criticism of Freud's approach, Carl Rodgers founded the humanistic approach. - This approach focused on the ideas that human's have a unique ability to be aware of their desires/wants - Also suggested that therapists should act as a friend to confide in to toward their patient. Eclectic Approach correct answer: - Combination of elements from different approaches were used when analyzing Cognitive Revolution correct answer: Occurred during the 1950's and was the return to the study of behaviorism from structuralism and functionalism. Biological Approach correct answer: Psychologists can now track activity in the brain by measuring the activity of cells within it. Evolutionary Approach correct answer: The idea that certain characteristics will be passed onto offspring but those characteristics will not be same from generation to generation. Sociocultural approach correct answer: This approach looks at social factors as well as environmental ones that would affect behavior. What is the scientific method? correct answer: The scientific method is a systematic approach that scientists as well as psychologists use to conduct experiments. Steps of the scientific method correct answer: Steps of the scientific method include: - Observe - Detect regularities: do certain factors trigger certain resposnes? - Generate hypothesis - Observe and compare to results Theory correct answer: Attempts to predict and explain events Hypothesis correct answer: Can be tested by experiments Goals of Psychological Research correct answer: Goals of psychological research include: - Observing behavior -Predicting behavior - Explaining Behavior Descriptive Research correct answer: This type of research is more based on observation and leads to information about behavior. Reactivity correct answer: The idea that participants of a study would act differently if they were aware that they were being watched/ observed. Naturalistic Observation correct answer: Researchers observe participants without creating any interference to the situation. Naturalistic observation has high external validity because it can represent the real world. Case studies correct answer: Case studies are used as references or starting points for research and experiments, these studies refer to one individual. Surveys correct answer: Surveys are used to gather information about a general population. For the most part, surveys tend to be voluntary participation based. Use of random sampling correct answer: Random sampling is used to achieve a representative sample from the population and to increase external validity and internal validity. Achievement Test correct answer: Achievement tests measures knowledge and skills of an individual. Aptitude Test correct answer: Aptitude test measures how likely people are succeed at performing certain tasks. 3 Measures of central tendency correct answer: Mean: the average of the data set Median: the middle number of the data set Mode:the most repetitive number in a data set 2 Measures of Variability correct answer: - Range: the spread of the numbers, or how much they vary - Standard Deviation: how much number in the data set vary from the mean. Inferential Statistics correct answer: Inferential Statistics are used by researchers to further their research and determine what areas to focus on. Independent and Dependent Variables correct answer: Independent Variables are ones that the researcher can control and dependent variables is one that is affected by manipulating the independent variable. Operational Defintions correct answer: Refer to the how we can measure certain concepts in an experiment or study; ex: to measure aggression in an experiment we count how often someone punches a punching bag. Purpose of a Correlation approach correct answer: Correlational approach allows researchers to predict relationships between variables. It is NOT used to establish causation Positive and Negative Correlations correct answer: A positive correlation indicated a positive change in one variable leads to a positive change in the dependent variable. Ex: Increasing lighting in area increases productivity of workers in a setting Confounding Variables correct answer: Confounding variables are uncontrolled variables that change with the independent variables Purpose of an Experimental approach correct answer: The purpose of an experimental approach is to establish causation between two variables. Random Assignment correct answer: Random assignment is necessary to keep conditions as consistent as possible, the researcher makes sure that the participant has an equal chance of being selected. Purpose of a Control group correct answer: The purpose of a control group is create a standard of measure to compare the experimental groups to. The control groups are not given any form of experimental treatment. Internal and external validity correct answer: Internal validity represents how well the experiment is performed and external validity represents how well the experiment relays conditions in real life.* An experiment done in a lab would have low external validity. Quasi- Experiment correct answer: Is a type of experiment that does NOT use random assignment. Placebo correct answer: Usually is used in medicinal experiments; in this case the preacher intentionally leads to the control group to believe that they are receiving some sort of experimental treatment. Single Blind study correct answer: A single- blind study is one where participants are unaware of which group they are placed in but the researchers are aware of placement. Ex: In Grey's Anatomy, Derek and Meredith conducted a clinical trial to find a cure for Alzheimer's disease. The patient was unaware whether they received the virus vs the placebo whereas Derek and Meredith were aware of which treatment was administered. Double Blind study correct answer: In a double blind study, neither the participant or the researcher is aware of placement. Reliability vs Validity correct answer: Reliability refers to how consistent the results are. Validity is how accurate the results are. For example, a thermometer may be 5 degrees off from the actual temperature. This would indicate that the thermometer is reliable but not valid. Something can have reliability but NOT be valid. Informed Consent correct answer: Participants are aware of the parameters of study that they are participating in. Debreifing correct answer: Researchers provide participants with explanations as to why certain methods were used and the main goal of the experiment. Confidentiality correct answer: Confidentiality is the idea that the information that the participant provides the researcher with would not be shared with others. Also the the researcher would not know the name of the individual associated with the information. Variation correct answer: is the difference between organisms within a population or a specific group Natural Selection correct answer: Darwin's theory that certain species have adaptations that increase their chances of survival in a particular environment. These traits are selected for in a population. Heritability correct answer: The ability to pass down changes to offspring. Sexual Selection correct answer: acts's on an organism's ability to obtain or successfully mate. Ex: Female peacocks are attracted to male peacock's with showy feathers. Therefore these characteristics are selected for in a population 3 Main things nature selects for correct answer: - Food attainment -Danger avoidance/ predators - Reproductive factors Nature vs Nurture correct answer: Nature refers to the idea that certain characteristics and or behaviors are innate (we are born with them) and nurture is the idea that there are other factors that affect certain traits that individual posses. Essentially it is a combination of nature and nurture that determine the traits an individual posses/ displays. Evolutionary Model of Human Behavior correct answer: This model takes a significant amount of time to progress, certain characteristics are "no longer advantages for survival" What is meant by tradeoffs? correct answer: Clark and Hatfield Study correct answer: This is the study where psychologists studied the interaction between opposite sexes. Opposite sexes asked one of three questions to each other 1. Go out with me? 2. Go to bed with me? 3. Have sex with me? The results indicated a downward, trend when women were asked go out with me, most stated yes but when asked have sex with me, almost all women stated no. For men, there was an upward trend that was displayed. Sensory neurons correct answer: Sensory neurons are ones that are in direct contact with the environment. Motor Neurons correct answer: Carry messages and commands away from the CNS to muscles and glands that produce responses. Glial cells correct answer: perform a variety of functions in the nervous system including removing waste, filling empty spaces, and helping neurons communicating with one another. Major parts of neuron correct answer: The major parts of a neuron include the following: - Soma: the main body of the cell - Dendrites: branches that extend from the cell body that are to transmit signals to the soma where the nucleus is found. - Axons: found along the dendrites and is where the signal travels (the thicker the axon, the faster the signal travels) - Terminal Button: present at the end of each dendrite and used to communicate with other cells. Synapse correct answer: Is the gap between cells and is usually where most communication takes place. Resting potential correct answer: occurs between -60 to -70 mv and is the minimum voltage required so that an action potential can be generated. Action potential correct answer: The electrochemical signal that a neuron transmits. Refractory Period correct answer: This is period that follows after an action potential is generated. During this period, the cell is simply at rest and does not generate another electrochemical signal. What are neurotransmitters? correct answer: Neurotransmitters are chemical messengers that action potentials can trigger What is acetylcholine? correct answer: Acetylcholine is a neurotransmitter that enables the communication between muscles and motor neurons What is dopamine? correct answer: Dopamine is an inhibitory transmitter that stabilizes communication. What is serotonin? correct answer: Serotonin is a primary neurotransmitter that affects sleep and dreaming What is GABA? correct answer: GABA plays an important role in the regulation of anxiety. What are endorphins? correct answer: Endorphins are chemicals that your body releases in response to pain as a natural pain killer What does the central nervous system consist of? correct answer: The CNS consists of the brain and the spinal cord. What does the peripheral nervous system consist of? correct answer: The peripheral nervous system consists of the nerves that connect the brain to spinal cord. The peripheral nervous system can be divided into two segments. What is controlled by the somatic nervous system? correct answer: The somatic nervous system is responsible for transmitting sensory information to the brain. What is controlled by the autonomic nervous system? correct answer: The autonomic nervous system, is the second division of the peripheral nervous system. controls blood pressure, heart rate, and activities of the internal glands. This system can be divided even further. What is the sympathetic system? correct answer: This division controls the fight or flight response What is the parasympathetic system? correct answer: This system is responsible for calming the body down after emergency. Parts of the brain correct answer: Important regions of the brain include: 1. Broca's srea: responsible for speech and various language functions. Is in the left frontal lobe. 2.Corpus Callosum: is the bridge way of communication between the the left and right hemispheres of the brain 3.Hypothalamus: is part of the forebrain and is responsible for regulating various motivational activities: drinking, eating, sexual behavior, also controls temperature of the body. 4. Hippocampus: forebrain; important in the formation of new memories 5. Parietal Lobe: The middle portion of the brain, detects pressure and touch 7. Thalamus: important for gathering information from senses. 8. Frontal lobe: responsible for personality development 9. Amygdala: linked to emotional activity; responsible for determining which memories to store (depends on strength of emotional connection) 10. Cerebellum: coordination and complex motor skills 11. Temporal Lobe: processes auditory information 12. Occipital lobe: responsible for vision 13. Wernicke's area: language comprehension 14. Substantia nigra: group of neurons in the midbrain that release the neurotransmitter dopamine from the terminal buttons. The divided brain correct answer: The brain is divided into two hemispheres: the left hemisphere and the right hemisphere. The left hemisphere controls the right side of the body while the right hemisphere controls the left side of the body. Right Hemisphere correct answer: responsible for the following: - Facial recognition - Processing visual and audiological stimuli - Spatial manipulation - artistic ability Left Hemisphere correct answer: linear reasoning and language function. Fetal Period correct answer: From the ninth week until birth; bones and muscles start to develop; at 6 months, the fetus weighs about 2 pounds and is over a foot long Teratogens correct answer: Environmental agents that can potentially harm the developing embryo/fetus (T/F) Morning sickness may be an evolutionary adaptation correct answer: True What age have 90% of infants learned to: a) roll over, b) sit w/o support, c) walk correct answer: a) 5 months b) 8 months c) 15 months Puberty correct answer: Period during which a person reaches sexual maturity and is potentially capable of producing offspring Around what age do most people begin to steadily decline physically? correct answer: 20s Menopause correct answer: Period when the menstrual cycle slows down and finally stops Dementia correct answer: physically based loss in mental functioning Preference Technique (a way to study babies) correct answer: Developed by Robert Fantz; the infant is presented with two visual displays at the same time, and the investigator records how long the infant looks at each of the screens Habituation Technique (another way to study babies) correct answer: Using different objects to see if the baby has a continuing interest "Using Rewards" Technique correct answer: Rewarding a simple motor skill Assimilation correct answer: Process through which we fit new experiences into existing schemata Accommodation correct answer: Process through which we change or modify existing schemata to accommodate new experiences Sensorimotor Period correct answer: Birth -2 yr; interact with the world via survival reflexes; understand how they can interact w/ the world voluntarily; start to vocalize; kick their legs;learning to repeat actions; object performance is developed around 6-9 months Object Performance correct answer: Ability to recognize that objects still exist when they're not in sight Preoperational Period correct answer: 2-7 yrs; begin thinking symbolically, but lack the ability to preform mental operations; egocentrism; animism; no reversibility Egocentrism correct answer: Tendency to view the world from your own unique perspective ONLY Animism correct answer: Belief that inanimate objects are alive Concrete Operational Period correct answer: 7-11 yrs; can preform concrete logical thinking; abilities are limited; reversibility Formal Operational Period correct answer: 11 yrs and older; capable of abstract thought and hypothetical thinking; Adolescent egocentrism; imaginary audience Adolescent Egocentrism correct answer: Believing they are the focus of everyone's attention Imaginary Audience correct answer: Believing everyone is always watching them and that others are thinking about them Preconvenional Level correct answer: Young children; based on immediate, external individual consequences Conventional Level correct answer: Based on if something violated a social order; societal consequences Postconventional Level correct answer: Based on abstract principles that can even conflict w/ accepted societal standards; universal ethical principles Attachments correct answer: Strong emotional ties to one or more intimate companions Contact Comfort correct answer: Degree of warm physical contact (provided by the caregiver) Importance of Harry Harlow's Experiment correct answer: It showed that w/o early attachment is very important in behavior; touching and massaging infants leads to significant physical and emotional benefits Strange Situation Test correct answer: Gradually subjecting a child to a stressful situation and observing the behavior toward the parent or caregiver Secure Attachment correct answer: When the child feels comfortable around the parent even when a stranger is introduced (60-70% of children) Resistant Attachment correct answer: Children react to stress in an ambiguous way; lack of trust in the parent (10%) Avoidant Attachment correct answer: Children show no strong attachment to the parent in any aspect (20-25%) Disorganized/Disoriented Attachment correct answer: Children react to the test with inconsistent responses (5-8%) Personal Identity correct answer: Sense of who one is as an individual and how well one measures up against peers Trust vs Mistrust correct answer: Infant; are there people who will meet my survival needs? Autonomy vs Shame or Doubt correct answer: Terrible twos; am I capable of independent self-control Initiative vs Guilt correct answer: 3-6 yrs; can i play with my own things or should I feel guilty for trying to carry out my own bold plans? Industry vs Inferiority correct answer: 6-12 yrs; can I learn and master new skills; can I complete tasks Identity vs Role Confusion correct answer: Adolescence; what kind of person do I represent? Intimacy vs Isolation correct answer: Young adulthood; question the meaning of relationships with others Generativity vs Stagnation correct answer: Career and family; focus on the concern about children and future generations Integrity vs Despair correct answer: Late adulthood-death; striving to accept themselves and their pasts Gender Schemas correct answer: Specific patterns of behavior that are consistent with how society dictates males and females should act Agism correct answer: Discrimination or prejudice against an individual based on physical age Kubler-Ross's Five Psychology Stages of Death correct answer: Denial, anger, bargaining, depression, acceptance Denial correct answer: "This must be a terrible mistake" Anger correct answer: "Why is this happening?" Bargaining correct answer: "What can I do to stop this terrible thing?" Depression correct answer: "Blot out the sun because all is lost" Acceptance correct answer: "I'm ready to die" What is consciousness? correct answer: Psychologists define consciousness as the subjective awareness of internal and external events. What is consciousness good for? correct answer: It allows for the following: - to assign meanings to our actions - to understand, predict, and ultimately control our world How does attention relate to consciousness? correct answer: Attention refers to the mental processes that set priorities for mental functioning What is a dichotic listening task and how does it demonstrate our ability to attend to things selectively? correct answer: When a dichtoic listening task is performed, the participant hears two different messages; one is transmitted to right ear while the other is transmitted to the left ear. The participant is then required to state the message that they have heard in one specific ear. In this case, the participant must block out the message from one ear to focus on the other Does our ability to attend selectively mean our brains totally shut out all other information entirely? correct answer: No, it does not mean that our brain shuts out all information entirely. It means that our brain can prioritize what to focus on and what not to turn our attention to at the moment. The Cocktail Effect correct answer: When you are at a large social gathering, your tend to actively ignore certain conversations but when you hear your name associated with a conversation, you immediately turn to that conversation that you had been actively ignoring. Ear- Switching Dichtotic Test correct answer: When the to be shadowed message was suddenly switched to the unattended channel, people were able to repeat a meaningful message. Multitasking correct answer: This occurs when we try to divide our attention between multiple tasks. Self- Described multitaskers correct answer: Mutlitaksers that perform worse on cognitive and memory tasks than people who say they can't/don't prefer to. Subliminal Messages correct answer: These are messages that are so hard to detect that they totally bypass conscious awareness. EX: The Simpsons episode had messages within it that increased a person's thirstiness but people were not aware that their thirst levels had increased. What is automaticity and how does the divided attention task demonstrate whether something is automatic? correct answer: Automaticity occurs when a skill can be performed without much conscious thought. A divided attention task can demonstrate whether a task is automatic or not; during this task, participants are required to complete two tasks simultaneously and if one does not affect the performance of the other it means that the skill has become automatic. What is visual neglect? correct answer: Visual neglect is a complex disorder of attention characterized by the tendency to ignore things that appear on a particular side of the body. People with this disorder tend to neglect their left visual field (damage to the right side of the brain causes this) What is ADHD? correct answer: ADHD is known as an attentive and hyperactivity disorder. It is often associated with difficulties concentrating for long periods of time and for sitting for long periods of time. Typically this disorder can be treated with a combination of medication as well as directed training. Directed training can include providing students with new and effective methods of studying as well as rewards for not creating a disturbance in a social setting. Is sleep considered to be an altered state of consciousness? correct answer: Yes, sleep is considered an altered state of consciousness. What is circadian rhythm? correct answer: A circadian rhythm refers to activities that fall under a 24 hour cycle. These rhythmic activities are controlled automatically by structures in the brain known as biological clocks. The 4 stages of Sleep correct answer: - N1: This the first stage of sleep and is characterized by the appearance of theta waves. These waves are slightly lower in amplitude and more regular in appearance. -N2: The waves appear interrupted and there are occasionally short bursts of activity known as sleep spindles. K complexes or sharp spikes in the EEG graph appear as well. - N3: This is the stage of deeper sleep and is characterized by synchronized slow wave patterns known as delta waves. Delta waves are 20% present. - N4: This is the deepest sleep and delta waves reach nearly 100% Blood pressure and brain activity are at the lowest points in a 24 hour period. *Sleep Cycles: N1-N3 followed by N1 and then REM sleep at the end. REM sleep correct answer: REM sleep typically occurs 70-90 minutes into the sleep cycle and is characterized by rapid eye movements, an increase in heart rate, and arousal. Makes up 20-25% of your night's sleep. What happens internally and externally during REM sleep correct answer: Internally: Brain temperature rises rapidly Epinephrine leads to increases in blood pressure, heart rate, and respiration rates. Externally: Body appears calm Large muscles become paralyzed Eyes dart around Dreaming occurs in 80% of people (but you can also dream in other stages) Theories behind the Function of Sleep correct answer: 1. Sleep is responsible for repairing and restoring the brain: Our body is worn out by our daily activities and needs rest in order to sustain higher mental functioning 2. Survival Value: Sleep can increase our chances of survival because rather than being out wandering about late at night, we are safe in our beds. Sleep Deprivation correct answer: A warning of sleep deprivation can be slurred speech. Lack of sleep can lead to difficulty focusing, sharp declines in mental activity, and the development of paranoia and hallucinations. What is REM rebound? correct answer: When a person loses time in their REM stage of sleep, during their next sleep cycle they will spend a longer portion of their sleep cycle in their REM sleep. A loss of REM does NOT lead to drastic impairment. What is the suggested amount of sleep per a night? correct answer: The amount of sleep varies by age: Infants and young children: sleep 16 hours a day Age 6-puberty: have a consistent sleep schedule Adolescents: Sleep patterns are influenced by schedules, sleep is necessary for brain growth What is the difference between REM dreams, non REM dreams, and Lucid dreams? (LECTURE) correct answer: REM Dream: have short story like qualities Non- REM Dreams: less memorable than REM dreams Lucid dreams: a dream where an individual is aware of dreaming and whose content the individual is often able to influence while dreaming. 4 Reasons Behind Dreaming correct answer: 1. Wish Fulfillment 2. Activation Synthesis 3. To help resolve impending problems in our lives 4. Dreaming may allow us to stimulate threats from our environment and practice ways to mentally overcome these threats. Freud's Theory of Wish Fulfillment correct answer: This theory states that our dreams reflect things that our direct conscious is "embarrassed of revealing" Certain aspects of the dream tend to be symbolic of a greater picture. Ex: A gun or an elongated object may translate to male genitalia and an entryway may translate to female genitalia Manifest content and Latent Content correct answer: Manifest Content are the actual symbols in our dreams while latent content represents the desires that are too disturbing for our direct consciousness Parasomnias and Dyssomnia correct answer: Parasomnia are certain elements that can disturb sleep and can include: nightmares, night terrors or sleep walking Dyssomnia are connected with the amount, quality, and timing of sleep: insomnia, hypersomnia, narcolepsy (rare condition) Causes of Parasomnias correct answer: Nightmare Night terrors Sleep Walking What are psychoactive drugs? correct answer: Psychoactive drugs are ones that alter a persons conscious, they can be classified into 3 different categories: 1. depressants 2. stimulants 3. hallucinogens What are depressants? correct answer: Depressants are drugs that are known to slow or depress the activity of the nervous system. Barbiturates and tranquilizers are examples of depressant drugs and are widely prescribed for treatments of anxiety and insomnia. What are opiates? correct answer: Opiates can slow and depress the nervous system and therefore reduce a person's anxiety, elevate their mood and lower their sensitivity to pain. Examples of opiates include: opium, heroin, and morphine. What are stimulants? correct answer: Stimulants are drugs that increases the central nervous system activity and enhances neural transmission. Common examples of stimulants include: caffeine, nicotine, cocaine, and amphetamines. What are hallucinogens? correct answer: Hallucinogens are drugs that tend to disrupt normal and mental/ emotional functioning. Mescaline and psiocybin are examples of hallucinogens. -LSD is a common hallucinogen taken by people and lead to the effect of synesthesia or a blending of sensory receptors. - Marijuana is another common drug that is linked with an increased sense of well being and an increased awareness of normal senses. What is hypnosis? correct answer: Hypnosis can be defined as any form of social interaction that produces a heightened state of suggested willingness in a participant. Hypnosis is NOT the same as sleep Two theories linked to heightened suggestibility correct answer: 1. Hypnotic Dissociation: individuals have two consciousness; the first is under direct control of the hypnotists and takes commands from him or her and the second is the hidden observer. 2. Role playing: Psychologists remain skeptical about hypnosis because hypnotized people seem to be playing some sort of role. What is learning? correct answer: Learning is referred to a change in behavior or potential behavior that results from experience. Orienting Reponse correct answer: This is our first initial response to something that it is new, for example when we hear an obscure noise we tend to lean in closer and be more attentive to this noise. Habituation correct answer: Habituation occurs when you slow your response to stop responding to an event that has become familiar through repeated presentation. Sensitization correct answer: this occurs when our response to an event increases with increased exposure to an event Classical Conditioning correct answer: this is refereed to as a set of procedures used to investigate how organisms learn about the signaling properties of events Pavlov's Dogs correct answer: Ivan P. Pavlov a Russian psychologist designed the set of procedures behind classical conditioning. He began with studying dogs and noticed that they salivate when presented with a dish of food. Pavlov determined that saliva secretion was a result of experience. US, UR, CS and CR correct answer: US= Unconditioned stimulus UR= Unconditioned response CS= Conditioned Stimulus CR= Conditioned Response An unconditioned response is elicited by the unconditioned stimulus and this is something that we are not taught to react to. The conditioned stimulus can become the signal for the unconditioned response when it provides information about the delivery of the unconditioned stimulus. In the case of Pavlov's experiment, the ringing of a bell was considered the conditioned stimulus as it provided information about the delivery of the unconditioned stimulus. Shortly after the ringing of the bell, the dog would salivate and food would be presented. 4 Key Necessities to forming a CS- US connection correct answer: In order for a connection to be formed between the conditioned stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus, the following must be met: 1. The conditioned stimulus MUST be present before the unconditioned stimulus 2. The unconditioned stimulus MUST closely follow the conditioned stimulus in time. 3. The conditioned stimulus MUST provide new information about the unconditioned stimulus 4.The unconditioned stimulus and the conditioned stimulus should be paired together to lead to a response. Simultaneous Conditioning correct answer: This is not effective as the conditioned stimulus must be presented before the unconditioned stimulus, simultaneous conditioning may result in a situation where the US-CS relationship has not formed. Backward conditioning correct answer: Blocking correct answer: The Little Albert Experiment correct answer: The Little Albert experiment demonstrated the idea of stimulus generalization. During this experiment, an eleven month old baby named Albert was presented with a white furry rat that he liked and shortly after there was a loud screeching noise. Albert began to cry out of fear toward the loud noise. Albert was presented with this combination repeatedly and eventually grew to fear the white rat itself when the noise was not present. As Albert grew older he began to fear most white- like furry animals such as bunnies as well. Components of the Little Albert Experiment correct answer: US= Loud noise UR= Fear CS= White rat CR= Fear Why does classical conditioning develop? correct answer: The early theory refers to the idea that we simply shift the unconditioned stimulus over to the conditioned stimulus Cognitive View: We learn relationships between events, and we learn that some events signal the upcoming occurrence of others . . . and we respond appropriately Second- Order conditioning correct answer: Pavlov discovered that the conditioned stimulus could be used to condition a second signal. Ex: Dr. Frolov taught a dog that the sound of a metronome ticking meant that there was meat powder stuck in its teeth. Shortly after, a black square was presented before the ticking. Eventually the dogs began to drool at the sight of the black square regardless if the ticking noise followed or not. Stimulus Generalization correct answer: Occurs when a new stimulus produces a response similar to one produced by the conditioned stimulus. Stimulus Discrimination correct answer: Occurs when you respond to the new stimulus in a way that is different from your original response to the stimulus. Extinction correct answer: In this procedure, the conditioned stimulus is presented repeatedly, after conditioning but is not followed by the unconditioned stimulus. This causes the unconditioned stimulus to loose its signaling properties. Conditioned Inhibition correct answer: learning that an event signals the absence of the unconditioned stimulus. Ex: Putting the bell together with the presence of light and following the following compound: light+ bell= no food. The dogs would began to realize that the presence of light indicates that no food will be present. Spontaneous Recovery correct answer: is the recovery of an extinguished response when the conditioned stimulus is present again and again after delay. Operant Conditioning correct answer: is a procedure for studying how organisms learn about the consequences of their own voluntary actions. Ex: Through trial and error, you began to realize that studying ahead of time for an exam increases your test scores significantly. Operant Conditioning (Training Pigeons) (LECTURE) correct answer: Punishment correct answer: consequences that decrease the likelihood of responding in a similar way again. There are two types of punishments: 1. Positive Punishments: occurs when the presentation of an event after a response weakens that response 2. Negative Punishments: when the removal of an event after responding lowers the likelihood of that response occurring again. Reinforcement correct answer: a term that psychologists use to describe the consequences that strengthen responding. There are two types of reinforcement: 1. Positive reinforcement: presenting an event after a response increases the strength of the response ex: If I nag my child to make sure that they clean their room, then they will be more likely to do so. 2. Negative reinforcement: sometimes responses can be strengthener by the removal of an event. If I remove the idea of nagging my child from the equation, then my child will be more inclined to clean their room. Primary Reinforcer correct answer: are things that are innately reinforcing such as food, warmth, and sexual gratification. Conditioned Reinforcer correct answer: these are reinforcers that are learned Example: Money, Prizes, grades and applause Counterconditioning correct answer: the process of reversing classical conditioning by pairing the conditioned stimulus (CS) with a new positive unconditioned stimulus (US) to produce a positive (instead of negative) conditioned response (CR) This is a quite common treatment for phobias. For Little Albert, we may pair the rat with cookies so that he no longer fears the rat. Cautions to Consider about punishment correct answer: It can be difficult to gauge the appropriate strength of the punishment depending on the situation. When punishment is violent and aggressive, you can run the risk of emotionally and physically hurting someone. Schedule of Reinforcement correct answer: is rule used to determine when a particular response will be reinforced; partial reinforcement occurs when reinforcement is delivered only some of time after the response has been elicited. 4 Partial Reinforcement schedules correct answer: 1. Fixed Ratio schedule (FR): the number of required responses is fixed and does not change from one instance from another 2. Variable- Ratio Schedule: also requires that you need a certain number of responses before reinforcement but the number of required responses changes from time to time. 3. Fixed Interval Schedules: the reward is delivered after the first response occurs but the next one might occur after a certain interval of time (ex:every 10 minutes) 4. Variable Interval Schedules: the critical time interval that is needed for a response to occur changes. A reinforcement may be delivered after 2 minutes and then the next one may not be delivered until 10 minutes after. Shaping correct answer: a procedure in which reinforcement is delivered for successive approximations of the desired response. Biological constraints on learning correct answer: Many psychologists believe that there are a limited number of response that an individual can be taught. Ex: When Thorndike was conducting his observations of how cats escape from the puzzle, he noticed that there were certain actions that the cats had performed such as scratching and yawning that he would not be able to teach them. Modeling correct answer: We naturally tend to learn from imitating the behaviors of those around us. Ex: We have learned a significant amount by watching our parents and teachers. Bandura's Bobo doll studies correct answer: Bandura and his colleagues showed nursery school children a video of adults kicking and punching what appeared to be an inflatable doll. Shortly after, the children were placed in a room with Bobo dolls and ended up punching them and acting aggressively toward the doll based on what they had seen. Vicarious punishment and reinforcement correct answer: Vicarious learning occurs when the model is reinforced for an action or weakened through vicarious punishment where the model is punished for an action. In other words, we learn by observing the consequences that our role model has faced for partaking in certain actions. What are sense organs and sensory receptor cells? correct answer: Sense organs are organs that receive stimuli (eyes, ears, nose, mouth and skin) Sensory receptor cells are specialized cells within the sense organs that send neural impulses to the brain. Sensation and Perception correct answer: Sensation is information coming into your brain, these are the elementary components of experience (what we touch, hear, smell, see ect.) Perception is the processes used to arrive at a meaningful interpretation of these sensations. The Necker Cube (BOOK) correct answer: What is meant by absolute threshold and difference threshold? correct answer: Absolute threshold in the minimum amount of stimulus required to elicit a response Difference threshold is the smallest detectable difference in the magnitude of two stimuli Weber's Law correct answer: This law states that the greater the intensity of the stimulus to begin with, the larger the change will have to be for an individual to be able to notice the change. Ex: Music at a loud setting to begin with would have to be on the loudest setting for one to notice a difference. Sensory Adaptation correct answer: this is the perceived weakening of a sensation due to prolonged exposure to the stimulus. Ex: When you enter a pool, the water may seem extremely cold but eventually your body will adjust to the waters because your sensory cells are able to adapt. What is light? correct answer: Light is one form of electromagnetic energy, it is composed of waves that give us certain characteristics. Characteristics of Light Waves correct answer: 1. Hue: The physical distance from one wavelength to another gives us color 2.Brightness: changes in amplitude or height is determined by the amount of light falling on an object. 3. Purity: the intensity of light and the wavelengths present can influence the richness of perceived colors. ** The human visual spectrum represents a small part of the electromagnetic spectrum (400-700 nm) Parts of the eye correct answer: There are several parts of the eyes: Cornea: Light first passes through the protective coating on the surface of the eye. Participates in focusing process. Pupil: Light next travels through the opening of the iris (the black part) Iris: the colored part of the eye that regulates the amount of light that enters Lens: Light next travels through here, the transparent portion of the eye behind the pupil that focuses light onto the retina. Focusing happens by changing lens shape Retina: images fall here, sensory receptor cells are here. Thin layer of tissue covering back of eye What is accommodation as it relates to the lens? correct answer: Muscles contract and lens is thicker and rounder when an object is close. How the Retina works correct answer: Electromagnetic energy is translated into an inner language of the brain. Receptor cells change the light energy into electrochemical impulses that contain a chemical substance known as photopigments which react to light. Two types of receptor cells in the retina correct answer: 1. Rods: are receptor cells that ares sensitive to light and generate visual signals 2. Cones: receptor cells that code information about the fine detail and early processing of color. NEEDS LIGHT to complete its job Receptive Field correct answer: is an area of a cell that responds when a particular pattern of light shines across the retina. What is the optic nerve? correct answer: The optic nerve is a collection of nerve fibers that carry visual and neural messages to the brain. The area that the optic nerve attaches to contains no rods or cones and therefore is a blind spot. What is dark adaptation? correct answer: This is the process of gradually adjusting to the dark. It is caused by the regeneration of rods and cones, enough photo pigments must be regenerated by the cells to detect low level of light Feature detectors correct answer: are simple cells that respond only when small bars of light are shown into the eyes. Trichromatic theory of vision correct answer: This is referred to the first level of color processing. There are three different kinds of cones in the eyes that respond to light in either blue, green, or red wavelengths. Color Blindness correct answer: This can occur due to loss or inactivation of a cone that is responsible for sensing a particular color of light. Opponent Process Theory correct answer: this is the second level of color processing and states that certain colors are linked ex: blues and greens and yellows and reds. An afterimage can occur when we stare at one color for a long period of time. Top- down processing correct answer: Knowledge, beliefs, and expectations are used to organize and interpret what we see Bottom- Up Processing correct answer: visual system analyzes actual sensory message and then we use our knowledge, beliefs and expectations to organize what we see. 5 Gestalt Principles of Organization correct answer: 1. Law of proximity: Elements that are close together tend to be grouped together as one subject 2. Law of similarity: Items that share similar properties are placed into the same set. 3. Law of closure: Even if a figure has a small gap, it will still be considered as a whole by a person viewing it. 4. Law of continuation: If a lines cross or are interrupted, people will continue to see one line. Figure Ground Concept correct answer: When we look at an image, we tend to separate into figure and ground. Figure is what is the center of our attention when looking at the image and ground is referred to as the background. 4 Monocular cues of depth perception correct answer: 1. The brain knows that distant objects produce similar images on the retina 2. Linear Perspective: parallel lines receding far into the distance converge on one point. Lines that are closer together must be further away 3. Far away objects look slightly blurry and blue-ish 4. We can tell the distance between two objects based on if one object casts a shadow on another. Binocular cues of depth perception correct answer: 1. Convergence 2. Retinal disparity: If you were to close one eye and view the object, each eye would produce a slightly different image than the other. What is meant by perceptual consistency? correct answer: we perceive an object's properties as unchanging, even though physical message delivered to eyes is changing 1. Brightness Constancy: we understand the brightness of an object does not change even when the object is dimly lit 2. Color Constancy: we understand that colors do not change despite different conditions of light 3. Size Constancy: size does not change 4. Shape Constancy: shape does not change Types of Illusions correct answer: 1. Ames: uses sloped ceilings and floors to create misleading depth cues. 2. Ponzo: uses linear perspective to trick the eye (superhero looking drawing) 3. Muller- Lyer: uses linear perspective to trick the eye (building drawing) What is sound? correct answer: Sound is the physical message delivered to the auditory system. What shape does sound take? correct answer: Sound is a form of energy that travels through a wave. It is a form of MECHANICAL energy and requires a medium to travel through What is meant by pitch, loudness, and what quality of sound determines each of these things? correct answer: 1. Frequency determines pitch (how high or low something sounds) 2. Loudness is determined by the pressure or amplitude of the wave. How Sound Travels correct answer: 1.Sound waves enter ear through pinna which helps capture sound (flap of tissue you call the ear!) 2. Sounds is then funneled down auditory canal toward ear drum, or tympanic membrane, which responds to sound by vibrating 3. Vibration pattern of ear drum is transmitted through the middle ear (portion between ear drum and cochlea, containing three small bones that help intensify vibration pattern) 4. Vibration pattern makes it to the inside the inner ear and the cochlea, where the sound energy gets translated to a neural impulse 5. Within the cochlea, there is a structure inside known as the Basilar membrane. This is the base for sensory cells of hearing. Flexible membrane running through cochlea that through its movement displaces the auditory receptor cells, or hair cells, lying along it. As tiny hairs (cilia) are bent through movement of this membrane, receptor cells fire 6. Finally the neural impulses generated by the hair cells leave the cochlea along a nerve known as the auditory nerve. Place theory correct answer: This theory state that we hear a particular pitch due to certain hair cells responding accordingly. Frequency Theory correct answer: This theory states that pitch is determined by partly the frequency of neural impulses traveling up the auditory pathway , higher rate of firing= higher pitch What produces the sensation of touch? correct answer: Several types of pressure sensitive cells are located in the skin. Some of these cells respond to constant pressure while others respond to intermittent pressure. ** A high concentration of cortical cells in area indicates that the area is more sensitive. What produces the sensation of temperature? correct answer: The body records and processes temperature through thermoreceptors located on the skin. Is experienced temperature dependent on the actual temperature of an object? correct answer: No experienced temperature is not dependent on the actual temperature of an object. What is pain? correct answer: Pain is an adaptive reaction that the body generates in response to events that are intense enough to cause tissue damage. Gate control theory of pain correct answer: Gate control theory of pain states that the brain can block critical pain signals from reaching higher neural centers when it is appropriate to do so. Ex: You slice your finger while cutting vegetables and at the same time a small fire has erupted in your kitchen. You will naturally react to putting out the fire because that is your first priority and while this happens, you will not feel the pain of your finger. Your body blocks the pain signals and DOES NOT send them to higher neural complexes. What is meant by phantom pain and how often is it treated? correct answer: Phantom pain is a type of pain that amputees often feel in their amputated limb as if it is still there. ** Remember Dr. Arizona Roberts on Greys Anatomy, she had lost her leg in an accident and continuously experienced phantom pain. Dr. Hunt treated it using mirror- image therapy. Fishy Smell studies correct answer: Pumping a fishy smell into the lab made participants more "suspicious," Making participants feel suspicious of the experimenter enhanced their ability to correctly label fishy smells and heightened detection sensitivity to low concentrations of fishy smells! What are the four basic tastes? correct answer: 1. Sweet 2. Sour 3. Salty 4. Bitter Memory correct answer: Capacity to preserve and recover information Encoding correct answer: Processes that determine and control how memories are formed Storage correct answer: Processes that determine and control how memories are stored and kept over time Retrival correct answer: Processes that determine and control how memories are recovered and translated into performance. What is sensory memory? What is meant by an icon and an echo? correct answer: Sensory memory is an exact replica of an environmental message which usually lasts for a second or less. Echos are auditory information and icon is visual. Short- Term Memory correct answer: Limited capacity system that we use to hold information after it had been analyzed for periods lasting for a minute or two. What is meant by the inner voice vs the inner eye, and how do these ideas relate to short term memory loss? correct answer: The inner voice is usually responsible for maintaining information over the short term. The inner eye is useful for recalling visual images. Rehearsal correct answer: Strategic processes that help maintain short- term memories indefinitely through the use of internal repetition. What is memory span? Research has shown that short term memory is typically how many items? correct answer: Memory span is the number of items that can be recalled from short term memory in their proper presentation of order on half the tested memory trials. It ranges between 5-9 terms. Chunking correct answer: Short term memory strategy that involved rearranging incoming information into meaningful or familiar patterns. Long term Memory correct answer: System used to maintain information for extended periods of time. Episodic Memories correct answer: Memory for a particular event/episode that has happened to you personally. Semantic Memories correct answer: Knowledge about the world, stored as facts that make little or no reference to one's personal experiences. Procedural Memory correct answer: Knowledge about how to do things Elaboration correct answer: An encoding process that involves information of the connections between to be remembered input and other info in memory. Visual Imagery correct answer: Process used to construct an internal visual image Seven different methods for improving the storage of info in LTM correct answer: 1) Thinking about the meaning of what you want to remember 2) Notice relationships 3) Notice differences 4) Form mental pictures 5) Space your repetitions 6) Consider sequence position 7) Test yourself What are the implications of "spacing your repetitions" for late-night cram sessions? correct answer: There's no time for spacing, so late-night cram sessions aren't very effective What is the primacy effect and what is the recency effect? correct answer: Primacy effect when items at the beginning of the list are memorized better. Recency effect is when items near the end of the list are remembered better Mnemonic Device correct answer: Special mental tricks that help people think about material in ways that improve later memory (most are visual) Flashbulb Memory correct answer: Rich memory records of the circumstances surrounding emotionally significant and surprising events; People say they can remember exactly how they felt that day (often inaccurate) Examples of Flashbulb Memories correct answer: JFK assassination; Ronald Reagan assassination attempt; Space Shuttle Challenger disaster; OJ Simpson trial; 9-11 events What is psychology correct answer: the scientific study of behavior and mind 3 types of psychologists correct answer: clinical, applied, research clinical psychologists correct answer: psychologists who specialize in the diagnosis and treatment of psychological problems applied psychologists correct answer: psychologists who extend the principles of scientific psychology to practical problems in the world research psychologists correct answer: psychologists who try to discover the basic principles of behavior and mind (through research, studies, etc.) confounding variable correct answer: uncontrolled variable that changes along with the independent variable dependent variable correct answer: the behavior that is measured or observed in an experiment independent variable correct answer: the aspect of the environment that is manipulated in an experiment. it must consist of at least two conditions placebo correct answer: an inactive, or inert, substance that resembles an experimental substance correlational research correct answer: a statistic that indicates whether two variables vary together in a systematic way; correlation coefficients vary from +1.00 to -1.00 experimental research correct answer: a technique in which the investigator actively manipulates the environment to observe its effect on behavior quasi-experimental research correct answer: similar to experimental research but lacks random assignment of the stuff to the experimenters operational definition correct answer: definitions that specify how concepts can be observed and measured 3 types of neurons correct answer: sensory - environment messages - brain interneurons - neuron messages - other neurons motor neurons - central nervous system -glands and muscles dendrites correct answer: fibers that extend outward from a neuron and receive information from other neurons soma correct answer: cell body of a neuron axon correct answer: long, tail like part of a neuron that is the cell's transmitter terminal buttons correct answer: tiny swellings at the end of the axon that contain chemicals important to neural transmission synapse correct answer: small gap between the terminal buttons of a neuron and the dendrite or cell body of another neuron resting potential correct answer: the tiny electrical charge in place between the inside and the outside of the resting neuron action potential correct answer: the all-or-none electrical signal that travels down a neuron's axon neurotransmitters correct answer: chemical messengers that relay information from one neuron to the next common neurotransmitters correct answer: glutamate, acetylcholine, dopamine, serotonin, gamma-amino-butyric acid central and peripheral nervous system correct answer: central - brain and spinal cord peripheral - links cent. nerv. system with rest of body autonomic nervous system correct answer: collection of nerves that controls the more automatic needs of the body (heart rate, digestion, blood pressure) sympathetic nervous system correct answer: provides a quick supply of chemicals, etc. in an emergency situation parasympathetic nervous system correct answer: calms us down after the sympathetic nervous system took over, also helps increase body's supply of stored energy hindbrain correct answer: juncture point where the brain and spinal cord merge. includes the cerebellum, medulla, pons, and reticular formation, basic life support for whole body medulla and pons correct answer: controls heart rate, breathing, blood pressure, vomit reticular formation correct answer: network of neurons and nerves linked to the control of general arousal, sleep ,and consciousness cerebellum correct answer: hindbrain-base of brain, involved with coordination of complex motor skills midbrain correct answer: middle portion, has tectum, superior and inferior colliculus - all serve as relay stations for visual and audible information and coordinate reactions to sensory events substantia nigra correct answer: group of neurons that release dopamine forebrain correct answer: has cerebral cortex and structures of the limbic system cerebral cortex correct answer: forebrain - outer layer of the brain, considered the seat of higher mental processes thalamus correct answer: forebrain - relay station, gathering point of input from senses hypothalamus correct answer: forebrain - plays a role in regulation of motivational activities, including eating, drinking, and sexual behavior limbic system (Not in coursepack) correct answer: system of structures involved in motivation and emotional behavior (amygdala) and memory (hippocampus) frontal lobe correct answer: located at top front part of brain, contains motor cortex and involved in higher-level thought processes parietal lobe correct answer: located at top middle part of brain, contains somatosensory cortex, which controls sense of touch temporal lobe correct answer: located on sides of the brain, its involved in certain aspects of speech and language perception occipital lobes correct answer: located at the back of brain, visual processing is controlled here corpus callosum correct answer: collection of nerve fibers that connects the two cerebral hemispheres and allows information to pass between them pituitary gland correct answer: master gland in the body that controls the release of hormones in response to signals from the hypothalamus zygote period correct answer: when the egg is fertilized and human, containing 23 chromosomes from the father and 23 chromosomes from the mother germinal period correct answer: the period in prenatal development from conception to implantation of the fertilized egg in the wall of the uterus embryonic period correct answer: period of prenatal development lasting from the end of implantation to the end of the eighth week fetal period correct answer: the period of prenatal development lasting from the ninth week until birth teratogens correct answer: environmental agents - such as disease organisms or drugs - that can potentially damage the developing embryo or fetus infant vision correct answer: see 20/400 (babies at 20 feet see what normal adults see at 400 feet) - very blurry infant smell correct answer: developed very quicky, can smell his momma's teet. developed quickly along with taste, smell, and pain habituation correct answer: the decline in responsiveness to a stimulus that is repeatedly presented schemata correct answer: mental models of the world that we use to guide and interpret our experiences (think schematic) assimilation correct answer: process through which we fit-or assimilate-existing schemata to accommodate new experiences accommodation correct answer: process through which we modify existing schemata to accommodate new experiences sensorimotor period correct answer: Piaget's 1st stage of cognitive development - lasting from birth to about 2 years old (schemata = sensory and motor abilities) preoperational period correct answer: Piaget's 2nd stage of cognitive development - lasting from 2 to 7 (children think symbolically but can't perform mental operations such as conservation) conservation correct answer: means that just because an item looks different doesn't mean its not the same thing it used to be just in a different form concrete operational period correct answer: Piaget's 3rd stage of cognitive development - lasting from 7 to 11 (children can do mental operations but can't do abstract reasoning) formal operational period correct answer: Piaget's 4th stage of cognitive development - thought processes become adultlike and people gain mastery over abstract thinking change blindness correct answer: when there is a change in a visual for a human but the human never noticed the difference decision making fallacy correct answer: biases that affect belief formation, decisions, etc - if something doesn't fit well into a category we just fit it into a similar category figure ground correct answer: trying to identify a figure from its background (vase or faces) retinal disparity correct answer: a binocular cue for depth that is based on location differences between the images in each eye (differences in each retina location allows depth perception) convergence correct answer: a binocular cue for depth that is based on the extent to which the two eyes move inward, or converge, when looking at an object looming correct answer: a visual phenomena that happens when an object moves c