Group dynamic lectures 2023-2024
Lecture 1 - Individuals in groups
How to define the individual in groups:
● The individual is often seen as a distinctive unit that is:
○ Self-interested (e.g. rational actor model)
○ Motivated to self-enhance (e.g. self-esteem theories)
○ Emotionally moved by self-relevant events (e.g. theories of emotion)
○ Motivated to protect and promote the self (e.g. value protection theories)
● The individual in groups is often seen as a distinctive unit that is:
○ Self-interested (e.g. me first, group second)
○ Motivated to self-enhance (e.g. groups should increase my self-esteem)
○ Emotionally moved by self-relevant events (e.g. angry when my group fails)
○ Motivated to protect and promote the self (e.g. leave group when it fails
● The ‘groupy’ individual is often seen as a less distinctive unit that is:
○ Group self-interested (group first, me second)
○ Motivated to group self-enhance (e.g. groups should increase the collective self
esteem
○ Emotionally moved by group-relevant events (e.g. angry at outgroup when my
group fails)
○ Motivated to protect and promote the group self (e.g. stick with the group when it
fails)
Therefore, the individual in groups should theoretically resist influence from group members,
let group members do most of the work and see the group as a mean toward their own ends.
The groupy individual should influence and be influenced by the group, cooperate with group
members toward a shared goal and see the group as an end in and of itself.
● There are cultural differences in this concept:
○ Individualistic societies:
■ Be a rational individual
■ Be different (distinctive) from others
■ Assume that others are self-interested
○ Collectivistic societies:
■ Be a good group member
■ Do not stand out from the rest
■ Assume that others want to maintain harmony
In older definitions of groups, the emphasis was mostly on physical and objectively measurable
characteristics or structures. A group existed when potential members share a common fate, are
bound by a formal or implicit group structure and have face-to-face contact with each other
(mostly applies to small groups).
More recent definitions emphasize the subjective elements such as self-definition: groups exist
in the mind of the individual
, ● Turner: A group exists when two or more individuals perceive themselves to be
members of the same category
● Tajfel: Three distinctions in groups:
○ Salience of intergroup context: individual - low; group - high
○ Variance within the ingroup: individual - heterogeneous; groups -
homogeneous
○ Variance in attitudes and behavior within a person toward members of the
outgroup: individual - high; group - low
How do individuals come to act negatively within a group?
● Deindividuation: loss of self and decreased care for social evaluation lead to impulsive
and irrational behavior
○ Antecendents: anonymity, shared responsibility and group size
● Depersonalization: a shift from personal identity to social identity: no loss of self, control
or accountability, but behavioral regulation through group norms
○ Depersonalization does not have to be negative: loss of self-awareness leads to
self-regulation and more regulation through external factors (more attention for
the environment, less for the self) -> for example church or large concerts.
According to the optimal distinctiveness theory (Brewer), people have two contrasting needs:
the need to be distinct and the need to be included, and they will identify with groups that best
satisfy these needs.
● Sources of distinctiveness (Becker): difference, separatedness and social position
○ Individualistic cultures: distinctiveness was derived from differences between
people.
○ Collectivistic cultures: distinctiveness was also established via types of social
roles or social positions; the distinctiveness motive was somewhat stronger in
these cultures.
Groups have many functions and they are necessary for individuals (need to belong), for
example goal achievement, intimacy, emotional support, basis for self-definition etc.
Loneliness differs across cultures: restrictive norms
about social relationships lead to higher loneliness at
the cultural level and lower loneliness at the individual
level.
We notice that groups and social relations are
important when we are excluded from them.
● Ostracized individuals report temporary thwarted social needs, feelings of numbness and
feelings of emptiness.
● People are highly sensitive to feelings of rejection: a four-second silence already
affects negative emotions, need to belong, need for social validations and experience of
rejection.
, ● People respond to ostracism by trying to recover their inclusionary status (e.g.
attuning to social information, conforming, cooperation) or try to regain control (e.g.
aggression)
Lecture 2 - Group formation and development
People develop working models of the self and others that provide us with expectations of
whether others will be available and responsive to our needs when necessary (attachment
processes).
Fiske’s relational models theory suggests that people have four models of social
relationships, which are shared and implicit models that allow people to generate coordinated,
consistent and culturally appropriate actions. People’s intuitive moral standards are based on
their (salient) model. The four models are accordingly:
● Communal Sharing (CS) - intimate relationships
○ Defined by solidarity, shared identity, and commensality
○ Example: eating together -> everything we have is for all of us without counting
○ Violation: lack of ingroup loyalty
● Authority Ranking (AR) - hierarchical relationships
○ Defined by precedence, asymmetrical power, and deference
○ Example: leader speaks first, but in turn has responsibility over followers
○ Violation: disrespect for authority
○ Differs culturally
● Equality Matching (EM) - friends and acquaintances
○ Defined by quid pro quo, reciprocity, turn taking, and egalitarianism
○ Example: getting coffee regularly and taking turns in paying
○ Violation: unfairness and lack of reciprocity
● Market Pricing (MP)
○ Defined by commodity values and cost-benefit calculations
○ Example: negotiating a price at a market -> everyone can buy as long as they
have the accepted currency
○ Violation: altruism
Implications of this model:
● To know a culture is to know which model to use in which situation
● Individualism (MP) is just one way of doing relationships
● First Dates example: you would expect that the couples where one person pays the bill
will go on a second date (expressing CS - intimate relationship), and the couples that
split the bill will not go on a second date (expressing EM - friend or acquaintance)
Individual difference variables such as gender, attachment style and personality dimensions,
determine who joins certain groups.
● Cost-benefit: people tend to join groups that benefit them most and cost them least
(physical proximity, common goals)
Lecture 1 - Individuals in groups
How to define the individual in groups:
● The individual is often seen as a distinctive unit that is:
○ Self-interested (e.g. rational actor model)
○ Motivated to self-enhance (e.g. self-esteem theories)
○ Emotionally moved by self-relevant events (e.g. theories of emotion)
○ Motivated to protect and promote the self (e.g. value protection theories)
● The individual in groups is often seen as a distinctive unit that is:
○ Self-interested (e.g. me first, group second)
○ Motivated to self-enhance (e.g. groups should increase my self-esteem)
○ Emotionally moved by self-relevant events (e.g. angry when my group fails)
○ Motivated to protect and promote the self (e.g. leave group when it fails
● The ‘groupy’ individual is often seen as a less distinctive unit that is:
○ Group self-interested (group first, me second)
○ Motivated to group self-enhance (e.g. groups should increase the collective self
esteem
○ Emotionally moved by group-relevant events (e.g. angry at outgroup when my
group fails)
○ Motivated to protect and promote the group self (e.g. stick with the group when it
fails)
Therefore, the individual in groups should theoretically resist influence from group members,
let group members do most of the work and see the group as a mean toward their own ends.
The groupy individual should influence and be influenced by the group, cooperate with group
members toward a shared goal and see the group as an end in and of itself.
● There are cultural differences in this concept:
○ Individualistic societies:
■ Be a rational individual
■ Be different (distinctive) from others
■ Assume that others are self-interested
○ Collectivistic societies:
■ Be a good group member
■ Do not stand out from the rest
■ Assume that others want to maintain harmony
In older definitions of groups, the emphasis was mostly on physical and objectively measurable
characteristics or structures. A group existed when potential members share a common fate, are
bound by a formal or implicit group structure and have face-to-face contact with each other
(mostly applies to small groups).
More recent definitions emphasize the subjective elements such as self-definition: groups exist
in the mind of the individual
, ● Turner: A group exists when two or more individuals perceive themselves to be
members of the same category
● Tajfel: Three distinctions in groups:
○ Salience of intergroup context: individual - low; group - high
○ Variance within the ingroup: individual - heterogeneous; groups -
homogeneous
○ Variance in attitudes and behavior within a person toward members of the
outgroup: individual - high; group - low
How do individuals come to act negatively within a group?
● Deindividuation: loss of self and decreased care for social evaluation lead to impulsive
and irrational behavior
○ Antecendents: anonymity, shared responsibility and group size
● Depersonalization: a shift from personal identity to social identity: no loss of self, control
or accountability, but behavioral regulation through group norms
○ Depersonalization does not have to be negative: loss of self-awareness leads to
self-regulation and more regulation through external factors (more attention for
the environment, less for the self) -> for example church or large concerts.
According to the optimal distinctiveness theory (Brewer), people have two contrasting needs:
the need to be distinct and the need to be included, and they will identify with groups that best
satisfy these needs.
● Sources of distinctiveness (Becker): difference, separatedness and social position
○ Individualistic cultures: distinctiveness was derived from differences between
people.
○ Collectivistic cultures: distinctiveness was also established via types of social
roles or social positions; the distinctiveness motive was somewhat stronger in
these cultures.
Groups have many functions and they are necessary for individuals (need to belong), for
example goal achievement, intimacy, emotional support, basis for self-definition etc.
Loneliness differs across cultures: restrictive norms
about social relationships lead to higher loneliness at
the cultural level and lower loneliness at the individual
level.
We notice that groups and social relations are
important when we are excluded from them.
● Ostracized individuals report temporary thwarted social needs, feelings of numbness and
feelings of emptiness.
● People are highly sensitive to feelings of rejection: a four-second silence already
affects negative emotions, need to belong, need for social validations and experience of
rejection.
, ● People respond to ostracism by trying to recover their inclusionary status (e.g.
attuning to social information, conforming, cooperation) or try to regain control (e.g.
aggression)
Lecture 2 - Group formation and development
People develop working models of the self and others that provide us with expectations of
whether others will be available and responsive to our needs when necessary (attachment
processes).
Fiske’s relational models theory suggests that people have four models of social
relationships, which are shared and implicit models that allow people to generate coordinated,
consistent and culturally appropriate actions. People’s intuitive moral standards are based on
their (salient) model. The four models are accordingly:
● Communal Sharing (CS) - intimate relationships
○ Defined by solidarity, shared identity, and commensality
○ Example: eating together -> everything we have is for all of us without counting
○ Violation: lack of ingroup loyalty
● Authority Ranking (AR) - hierarchical relationships
○ Defined by precedence, asymmetrical power, and deference
○ Example: leader speaks first, but in turn has responsibility over followers
○ Violation: disrespect for authority
○ Differs culturally
● Equality Matching (EM) - friends and acquaintances
○ Defined by quid pro quo, reciprocity, turn taking, and egalitarianism
○ Example: getting coffee regularly and taking turns in paying
○ Violation: unfairness and lack of reciprocity
● Market Pricing (MP)
○ Defined by commodity values and cost-benefit calculations
○ Example: negotiating a price at a market -> everyone can buy as long as they
have the accepted currency
○ Violation: altruism
Implications of this model:
● To know a culture is to know which model to use in which situation
● Individualism (MP) is just one way of doing relationships
● First Dates example: you would expect that the couples where one person pays the bill
will go on a second date (expressing CS - intimate relationship), and the couples that
split the bill will not go on a second date (expressing EM - friend or acquaintance)
Individual difference variables such as gender, attachment style and personality dimensions,
determine who joins certain groups.
● Cost-benefit: people tend to join groups that benefit them most and cost them least
(physical proximity, common goals)
