Linguistics
Wiley-Blackwell
Notes and Summaries
Chapter 1: From Language to Linguistics p. 3
❖ Language users are capable of deciding whether a sentence is good or not from both
memory and knowledge of a language
❖ The knowledge of language is not conscious, it’s abstract. Language users are normally able
to produce and understand a language but are unable to explain how the system works
❖ Every language is used for general communication
❖ For different subjects, a different type of jargon may be used. They generally still employ the
same grammar
❖ Linguists have been operating for centuries on the idea that the languages of the world have
a common basis
o “Grammar is substantially one and the same in all languages, despite its accidental
variations” –Roger Bacon
o “He who knows the grammar in one language, also knows it in another, as far as
essentials are concerned” –Anonymous
❖ Universal properties of language; these are known as UNIVERSALS
o All languages consist of small elements
e.g. spoken language: the speech sounds, sign language: hand shapes.
From these small elements, all larger units are built which then helps form
sentences*
o All spoken languages have vowels and consonants
o In all languages allow users to express negative statements, ask questions and issue
orders
o All languages have words for BLACK and WHITE, DARK and LIGHT (these are concepts
and not words)
❖ *Compositionality of language: a word on its own has a particular meaning, it is, at the same
time, composed of a combination of sounds that help distinguish meaning
❖ Recursion: the ability to place one component inside another component of the same kind
o E.g. The dog [of the man [with the hat [without the feather]]]
The prepositional phrase with the hat without the feather forms part of the
prepositional phrase of the man with the hat without the feather
❖ Recursion also takes place when we embed a sentence within another sentence:
o E.g. Sheila assumes [that Peter knows [that Ahmed thinks [that he is a liar]]]
❖ Natural human languages are acquired (by children) through interaction with their
environment, and thus handed down from one generation to the next
❖ Human language vs. Animal language:
1
, o Human language has creativity which allows us to create new, unique sentences.
Animal languages do not have this characteristic feature
o People adapt their language/conversation to that of partners: co-operative
behaviour and interaction takes place
o Human language is spontaneous: no need for a direct prompt or stimulus
o Human language is arbitrary when meaning and form are concerned
E.g. north, east, south, west: these directions are denoted by words (not
actions/signs/directions) only
❖ Onomatopoeia: a word that imitates the sound it makes (e.g. miaow). An exception to the
rule of arbitrariness
❖ Constructed languages: deliberately and consciously designed by humans.
o Generally do not change over time, unlike natural languages
o Generally not acquired from birth and through direct interaction
❖ Computer languages: used for writing computer programmes and for giving instructions to
computers
❖ Non-Verbal Communication: use of gestures, body position and facial expressions
More limited than verbal communication. There is no grammar and no fixed structure.
❖ Languages are systems of symbols that represent something
Summary of section 1.2 and 1.3
Languages have structure; utterances are formed according to certain rules
An important distinguishing properties is that of compositionality
Languages are acquired by children via interaction with their environment, and they are
transmitted from one generation to the next
Creativity is a property of the human language faculty
Human language use is a form of ‘acting together’ or interaction
Language use is not bound to the here and now, that is, language use does not have to be
directly linked to present experiences and circumstances
In language there is often an arbitrary relation between the form of the language symbol and
the meaning of that symbol
Many utterances have more than one meaning, but with the help of the context it is usually
possible to establish what the intended meaning is
❖ Spoken languages vs. sign languages: different modality
Spoken language: makes use of the tongue, lips and vocal chords. Is heard by the ear
Sign language: visual
❖ The written form of a language is a visual phenomenon
❖ Primitive languages: no written form
❖ Some languages have limited vocabulary in a particular field
❖ Is there a difference between simple and complex languages?
❖ Noam Chomsky, important 20th century linguist:
“When we study human languages, we are approaching what some might call ‘the human
essence’, the distinctive qualities of the mind, that are, as far as we know, unique to man.”
2
, ❖ Descriptive grammar: describes the rules for all varieties of the language
❖ Prescriptive grammar: prescribes which forms of a language are good and which aren’t.
Change may be regarded as a threat to the ‘pure language’
❖ When a language is described from the perspective of change, we are giving a diachronic
description
❖ A representation of a language at a particular moment in time is known as a synchronic
description
❖ Pedagogical grammar: learner’s grammar. Used for teaching and learning.
Chapter 2: The Language User p. 29
❖ Linguistic Competence: the abstract and largely unconscious knowledge of the language
system
❖ Linguistic Performance: the ability to produce and comprehend sentences in a language
o e.g. This is the story of which Anna said that Tom had heard that Janet had told Bill
how much she liked it.
Language speakers have the knowledge to understand this sentence, yet would most
likely not formulate a sentence like this themselves. Linguistic performance causes
limitations as the human memory is not capable of processing sentences that are too
long.
❖ Knowledge of the language system is not enough to understand language. Language users
also need knowledge of the world
❖ Communicative competence: the knowledge of how to use your language in different
situations
World
Knowledge
Mental
Lexicon
UNDERSTANDING
LANGUAGE SPEAKING
Knowledge of
Language
Knowledge of
Language Use
Speech Input Speech Output
3
Wiley-Blackwell
Notes and Summaries
Chapter 1: From Language to Linguistics p. 3
❖ Language users are capable of deciding whether a sentence is good or not from both
memory and knowledge of a language
❖ The knowledge of language is not conscious, it’s abstract. Language users are normally able
to produce and understand a language but are unable to explain how the system works
❖ Every language is used for general communication
❖ For different subjects, a different type of jargon may be used. They generally still employ the
same grammar
❖ Linguists have been operating for centuries on the idea that the languages of the world have
a common basis
o “Grammar is substantially one and the same in all languages, despite its accidental
variations” –Roger Bacon
o “He who knows the grammar in one language, also knows it in another, as far as
essentials are concerned” –Anonymous
❖ Universal properties of language; these are known as UNIVERSALS
o All languages consist of small elements
e.g. spoken language: the speech sounds, sign language: hand shapes.
From these small elements, all larger units are built which then helps form
sentences*
o All spoken languages have vowels and consonants
o In all languages allow users to express negative statements, ask questions and issue
orders
o All languages have words for BLACK and WHITE, DARK and LIGHT (these are concepts
and not words)
❖ *Compositionality of language: a word on its own has a particular meaning, it is, at the same
time, composed of a combination of sounds that help distinguish meaning
❖ Recursion: the ability to place one component inside another component of the same kind
o E.g. The dog [of the man [with the hat [without the feather]]]
The prepositional phrase with the hat without the feather forms part of the
prepositional phrase of the man with the hat without the feather
❖ Recursion also takes place when we embed a sentence within another sentence:
o E.g. Sheila assumes [that Peter knows [that Ahmed thinks [that he is a liar]]]
❖ Natural human languages are acquired (by children) through interaction with their
environment, and thus handed down from one generation to the next
❖ Human language vs. Animal language:
1
, o Human language has creativity which allows us to create new, unique sentences.
Animal languages do not have this characteristic feature
o People adapt their language/conversation to that of partners: co-operative
behaviour and interaction takes place
o Human language is spontaneous: no need for a direct prompt or stimulus
o Human language is arbitrary when meaning and form are concerned
E.g. north, east, south, west: these directions are denoted by words (not
actions/signs/directions) only
❖ Onomatopoeia: a word that imitates the sound it makes (e.g. miaow). An exception to the
rule of arbitrariness
❖ Constructed languages: deliberately and consciously designed by humans.
o Generally do not change over time, unlike natural languages
o Generally not acquired from birth and through direct interaction
❖ Computer languages: used for writing computer programmes and for giving instructions to
computers
❖ Non-Verbal Communication: use of gestures, body position and facial expressions
More limited than verbal communication. There is no grammar and no fixed structure.
❖ Languages are systems of symbols that represent something
Summary of section 1.2 and 1.3
Languages have structure; utterances are formed according to certain rules
An important distinguishing properties is that of compositionality
Languages are acquired by children via interaction with their environment, and they are
transmitted from one generation to the next
Creativity is a property of the human language faculty
Human language use is a form of ‘acting together’ or interaction
Language use is not bound to the here and now, that is, language use does not have to be
directly linked to present experiences and circumstances
In language there is often an arbitrary relation between the form of the language symbol and
the meaning of that symbol
Many utterances have more than one meaning, but with the help of the context it is usually
possible to establish what the intended meaning is
❖ Spoken languages vs. sign languages: different modality
Spoken language: makes use of the tongue, lips and vocal chords. Is heard by the ear
Sign language: visual
❖ The written form of a language is a visual phenomenon
❖ Primitive languages: no written form
❖ Some languages have limited vocabulary in a particular field
❖ Is there a difference between simple and complex languages?
❖ Noam Chomsky, important 20th century linguist:
“When we study human languages, we are approaching what some might call ‘the human
essence’, the distinctive qualities of the mind, that are, as far as we know, unique to man.”
2
, ❖ Descriptive grammar: describes the rules for all varieties of the language
❖ Prescriptive grammar: prescribes which forms of a language are good and which aren’t.
Change may be regarded as a threat to the ‘pure language’
❖ When a language is described from the perspective of change, we are giving a diachronic
description
❖ A representation of a language at a particular moment in time is known as a synchronic
description
❖ Pedagogical grammar: learner’s grammar. Used for teaching and learning.
Chapter 2: The Language User p. 29
❖ Linguistic Competence: the abstract and largely unconscious knowledge of the language
system
❖ Linguistic Performance: the ability to produce and comprehend sentences in a language
o e.g. This is the story of which Anna said that Tom had heard that Janet had told Bill
how much she liked it.
Language speakers have the knowledge to understand this sentence, yet would most
likely not formulate a sentence like this themselves. Linguistic performance causes
limitations as the human memory is not capable of processing sentences that are too
long.
❖ Knowledge of the language system is not enough to understand language. Language users
also need knowledge of the world
❖ Communicative competence: the knowledge of how to use your language in different
situations
World
Knowledge
Mental
Lexicon
UNDERSTANDING
LANGUAGE SPEAKING
Knowledge of
Language
Knowledge of
Language Use
Speech Input Speech Output
3
