Media Entertainment
01-11-2017
Media&Entertainment as culture: an idealogical perspective
Wat is cultuur en wat is cultuur niet?
Een klein reisje in de tijd van Leisure and Entertainment.
A Brief History of Leisure and Entertainment as told by Zillmann.
Leisure time allows people to develop entertainment.
Leisure = A time of opportunity wherein the individual has the freedom to perceive and
selectexperiences which are either worthwhile or simply gratifying without any other
redeeming value. – Zillman (2000)
Animals (and humans) respond to basic needs, like food, shelter, sleep, mating, feeding and
caringfor progeny.
- Leisure happens only when other major needs are fulfilled.
- Leisure can be socially organized (some primates do, like monkeys taking care of the kids of
other monkeys).
- Leisure happens more frequently when animals are “bored”.
The beginning of media entertainment
Homo Erectus (800,000 to 200,000 years ago)
- Organized hunting, domesticating fire -> creating leisure time (e.g., between meals)
- Invention of wheel and sails, pottery ->Artistic expression, Music-making, because
they now had time to spend on things that were pretty instead of necessary.
Ancient Egypt
- Strongly structured and hierarchical society
- Leisure (and entertainment) was a prerogative of the rich
- Banquets and dinner parties for the privileged (pharaohs, nobles, priests)
- Theaters for the “middle class” (craftsmen, carpenters, painters, etc.) with acrobats,
gymnasts, and dancers
- Beer houses for the masses, providing communal tale-telling
Ancient Greece
- Suspend all business during festivals
- Prisoners and women were permitted to attend
- Poetry, music, and dance- Athletic games (Olympics)
- Theater in outdoor amphitheaters (three tragedies, one comedy)
- Street entertainment
Roman Empire
- Entertainment is for the masses, also viewed as a mean to keep sociaty under control
- Types of entertainment: tragedies, comedies and circus, where the population
gathered to see slaves fight.
- Public baths and gyms also available for the masses
,Christianity
- Until 11th century: Humbleness! Laughter is uncristian as:
o Sunday a day of rest
o Salvation comes after life
o Humor is a threat to power and authority of church
- 11th century: Monks define good and bad laughter
Massa media entertainment ontstond:
- Entertaining books: mass printing, deden ze al in de 14de eeuw in China
- Illustrated magazinez: tweede helft 19de eeuw
- Newspapers: 1880
- Comic books: 1930
- Cinema: begin 20ste eeuw
- Radio: 1920
- Tv: 1930
- Video games: 1970
- Internet en social media: 1990, 2000
Hoe meer technologie er is gekomen, hoe meer vrije tijd wij hebben. Door de geschiedenis
van de mensheid hebben we steeds nieuwe manieren gevonden voor entertainment. Maar
er is altijd welentertainment geweest. Zelfs wanneer de regering en religie het probeerden
het te reguleren.
Wat is cultuur? Het is kijken naar de geschiedenis. De woorden die je noemt bij cultuur zijn
een deel van traditie. Cultuur komt van Cultivatie, het idee van planten. Alles wat mensen
inspireert.
Culture volgens Barker & Jane (2016): The arts and the values, norms ad symbolic goods of
everyday life.
Looking at the past: Culture is about tradition and social reproduction
Looking at the future: Culture is about creativity and change
Antropologische view van cultuur
- Mensen met de zelfde cultuur zien de wereld op dezelfde manier (of het is more likely
dat ze dat doen)
- Meaning is not generated by individuals but collectives of people
Culturism
, - Culture is not independent from factors who are
incontrollable by individuals (e.g where they’re born,
what they have access to)...
- ...but culture is also represented by ordinary, everyday
practices.
Wie heeft toegang tot cultuur?
Karl Marx: culture is political because
1. it represents relations of power
2. it neutralizes the social order as an inevitable fact
3. it obscures underlying relations of exploitation
As such, culture is driven by profit, and mostly produced by the
higher classes.
Cultuur is politiek: cultuur reproduceert dezelfde mechanismen die power ook produceren.
Mensen met veel power hebben ook meer toegang tot cultuur.
Raymond Williams: culture can be influenced by profit if it is born close to it.
- Distance from profit makes culture more independent (but not necessarily less
ideological).
- E.g. TV production is backed by large companies, and driven by profit. Independent
artists are far from capitalist production.
Wat is high culture en wat is low culture?
Wat onderscheidt high culture van low culture?
Aesthetics
- Up until the 19th century, high culture was everything that responded to an idea of
what was beautiful. For figurative arts, this corresponded to something that seemed
real
- Then photography was invented, and its representation of reality could not be
matched. That gave rise to modern and contemporary art.
Quality
- A similar classification identified high culture with the result of superior skills, such as
the ability to write better than others, or produce better art.
- However, technology has compensated for a lot of rarely found skills.
Popularity
Pros: this approach allows to see value also in content that not everyone considers “artistic”.
Cons: we should not forget that some cultural products are only made with the purpose of
being sold, and this can have political consequences.
Onderscheiden van high en low:
A universal distinction between high and low culture is unsustainable. – Barker & Jane
Pop Culture is a term that has been used extensively to talk about TV and now Internet-
induced media and entertainment.
,Wat is er mis met pop culture?
Theodor Adorno:
- Content is standardized and mass-produced, purely meant for consumption.
- Art, on the other hand, is not made to be sold and challenges society.
Wat is er goed aan pop culture?
John Fiske:
- Popular culture is not just about the content, but also the meanings people derive
from it.
- Consumers pick and choose their cultural diet. It’s not only about what they watch,
read, listen to, but also about what it means to them.
Why do we care??
1. Because pop culture is participative
As people nowadays make their own media and entertainment, it becomes almost
impossible to ignore content.
2. Because pop culture is influential
Research has proven that media & entertainment content influences the way people
judge themselves and others.
02-11-2017 Uses and Gratifications
Hoe en waarom selecteren mensen entertainment?
Entertainment opties
Entertainment vs. Other media or activities
Focus on the role of the audience wat willen ze en wat hebben ze nodig?
Iedereen maakt individuele keuzes bij het selecteren van media.
Media selection, media effects
- Early media research focused on the succes of campaigns.
- Er was een hoop propaganda en advertenties die krachtig waren. Ging samen met de
opkomst van tv en radio.
- Could the new mass media produce dramatic effects on mass society?
We maken ons nog steeds druk om propaganda en media dat invloed heeft op mensen.
In contrast to assumptions about powerful media effects, empirical studies in the 1940’s
started to show that audience members were:
- Active, not passive
- Selective, not a captive audience
- Obstinate, not gullible
Lazersfeld & Katz: the importance of selection and use
- People’s predispositions affect their media choices
- Media are primarily influential via interpersonal talk (leaders)
- People make strategic use of media to meet their needs
,Worries about escapism
Escapism: escape reality/ psychological problems BAD
Als mensen de media gebruiken om hun eigen “needs” te vervullen, is dat wel goed?
- People turn to their dreamlike world when they are deprived and alienated
- Downward spiral: further withdrawal from the arena of social and political action
- Less sleep/late to work displacing other activities?
- Moskalenko & Heine:
o Escapism blocks rumination (thinking about bad thoughts, jezelf gek maken)
Katz & Foulkes (1962)
What do we exactly mean by ‘escapist’ media? A process…
- Motivation or ‘drive’
- High levels of exposure
- Social context of exposure
- Distraction content
- Psychological escapism
- Dysfunctional consequences
Entertainment is een manier om uit de realiteit te ontsnappen.
Zorgen: als mensen mediagebruiken voor hun eigen welzijn, is dat een goed iets (maakt dat
de problemen waaruit mensen proberen te ontsnappen niet juist erger? Media als drug)?
- Narcotizing Dysfunction: niet functioneren door te veel escapism.
Je kan escapism motieven hebben. IK ben gefrustreerd over mijn leven, en gaan daarom
bingewatchen op netflix. Escapism kan ook optreden als mensen zoveel media
gaangebruiken dat andere dingen eronder gaan lijden. Sociale context moet ook worden
meegenomen. Mensen gebruiken media ook in een sociale context. Je kan ook naar
decontext kijken. Sommige films zijn meer escapist (harry potter) dan andere films. Ook naar
het psychologische proces kijken. Dysfunctionele proces: gaan mensen minder goed
functioneren door het mediagebruik.
2x3 grid op slide Katz & Foulkes.
Veel media is escapism, maar er is veel variatie. Escapism kan ook functioneel zijn.
Mensenverschillen in hoeverre mensen hun problemen ‘’herkauwen’’. Escapism is dan een
manierom dit herkauwen te stoppen (Moskalenko & Heine).
Immersive experiences into entertainment
- Absorption (Lecture 4)
- Enjoyment (Lecture 6)
- Suspense (Lecture 7)
- Appreciation (Lecture 10)
- Parasocial interaction (Lecture 12)
- Identification (Lectures 12 and 13)
- Interactivity (Lecture 14)
- Presence: a sense of “being there”
, - Transportation: feeling as if you have travelled to (“transported to”) the narrative
world
Transportation
Green & Brock (2000)
- Imagining the story world
- Emotional impact of the story world
- Focused attention on the story world
“That the media transport one to the world outside of one's immediate environment is the
very essence of their function.” (Katz & Foulkes, 1962, p. 384)
What do the media do to people? Can we flip that question what do people do with
media?
Het gaat om de selectie van media en processing during media use.
Verschillende mensen gebruiken media op verschillende manieren.
Hate watching – je vind t eigenlijk niet leuk maar toch kijk je het, omdat het zo vreselijk is
zoals Geordie shore.
U&G legt de selectie, processing en de effecten van mediakanalen en inhoud uit.
Gratifications is hier dan het effect. De verkregen gratification zijn niet altijd een match met
de gezochte gratificaties.
Mensen hebben redenen om de media te gebruiken. They are motivated to actively use
media in order to obtain “gratifications” (i.e., desired effects)
Assumpties van U&G
- Communicatie is gemotiveerd en doelbewust (mensen zijn vaak mindless) Rubin:
media is vaak ook een ritueel.
- Mensen zijn actief en selectief
- Sociale factoren spelen een rol in mediaeffecten (cultuurgebonden)
- Media concurreren met functionele alternatieven
- Mensen zijn invloedrijker dan de media en het proces van de effecten
- Mensen zijn in staat om te vertellen welke media ze gebruiken en waarom
However, people are not always purposive and active
- Ritualized vs. instrumental media use (Rubin, 1984)
- Also, important to understand the involvement/experience during media use
- Individual differences are important predictors of uses and gratifications
Limitations of the U&G approach
- “Typologies” are often inductive and very specific to the particular medium, time
period, or study
- In other, more deductive cases, participants may simply agree with reasonable-
sounding explanations for media use
- Studies often rely on cross-sectional surveys: No causal evidence
- Surveys typically can’t dig deep into particular message features or psychological
responses
01-11-2017
Media&Entertainment as culture: an idealogical perspective
Wat is cultuur en wat is cultuur niet?
Een klein reisje in de tijd van Leisure and Entertainment.
A Brief History of Leisure and Entertainment as told by Zillmann.
Leisure time allows people to develop entertainment.
Leisure = A time of opportunity wherein the individual has the freedom to perceive and
selectexperiences which are either worthwhile or simply gratifying without any other
redeeming value. – Zillman (2000)
Animals (and humans) respond to basic needs, like food, shelter, sleep, mating, feeding and
caringfor progeny.
- Leisure happens only when other major needs are fulfilled.
- Leisure can be socially organized (some primates do, like monkeys taking care of the kids of
other monkeys).
- Leisure happens more frequently when animals are “bored”.
The beginning of media entertainment
Homo Erectus (800,000 to 200,000 years ago)
- Organized hunting, domesticating fire -> creating leisure time (e.g., between meals)
- Invention of wheel and sails, pottery ->Artistic expression, Music-making, because
they now had time to spend on things that were pretty instead of necessary.
Ancient Egypt
- Strongly structured and hierarchical society
- Leisure (and entertainment) was a prerogative of the rich
- Banquets and dinner parties for the privileged (pharaohs, nobles, priests)
- Theaters for the “middle class” (craftsmen, carpenters, painters, etc.) with acrobats,
gymnasts, and dancers
- Beer houses for the masses, providing communal tale-telling
Ancient Greece
- Suspend all business during festivals
- Prisoners and women were permitted to attend
- Poetry, music, and dance- Athletic games (Olympics)
- Theater in outdoor amphitheaters (three tragedies, one comedy)
- Street entertainment
Roman Empire
- Entertainment is for the masses, also viewed as a mean to keep sociaty under control
- Types of entertainment: tragedies, comedies and circus, where the population
gathered to see slaves fight.
- Public baths and gyms also available for the masses
,Christianity
- Until 11th century: Humbleness! Laughter is uncristian as:
o Sunday a day of rest
o Salvation comes after life
o Humor is a threat to power and authority of church
- 11th century: Monks define good and bad laughter
Massa media entertainment ontstond:
- Entertaining books: mass printing, deden ze al in de 14de eeuw in China
- Illustrated magazinez: tweede helft 19de eeuw
- Newspapers: 1880
- Comic books: 1930
- Cinema: begin 20ste eeuw
- Radio: 1920
- Tv: 1930
- Video games: 1970
- Internet en social media: 1990, 2000
Hoe meer technologie er is gekomen, hoe meer vrije tijd wij hebben. Door de geschiedenis
van de mensheid hebben we steeds nieuwe manieren gevonden voor entertainment. Maar
er is altijd welentertainment geweest. Zelfs wanneer de regering en religie het probeerden
het te reguleren.
Wat is cultuur? Het is kijken naar de geschiedenis. De woorden die je noemt bij cultuur zijn
een deel van traditie. Cultuur komt van Cultivatie, het idee van planten. Alles wat mensen
inspireert.
Culture volgens Barker & Jane (2016): The arts and the values, norms ad symbolic goods of
everyday life.
Looking at the past: Culture is about tradition and social reproduction
Looking at the future: Culture is about creativity and change
Antropologische view van cultuur
- Mensen met de zelfde cultuur zien de wereld op dezelfde manier (of het is more likely
dat ze dat doen)
- Meaning is not generated by individuals but collectives of people
Culturism
, - Culture is not independent from factors who are
incontrollable by individuals (e.g where they’re born,
what they have access to)...
- ...but culture is also represented by ordinary, everyday
practices.
Wie heeft toegang tot cultuur?
Karl Marx: culture is political because
1. it represents relations of power
2. it neutralizes the social order as an inevitable fact
3. it obscures underlying relations of exploitation
As such, culture is driven by profit, and mostly produced by the
higher classes.
Cultuur is politiek: cultuur reproduceert dezelfde mechanismen die power ook produceren.
Mensen met veel power hebben ook meer toegang tot cultuur.
Raymond Williams: culture can be influenced by profit if it is born close to it.
- Distance from profit makes culture more independent (but not necessarily less
ideological).
- E.g. TV production is backed by large companies, and driven by profit. Independent
artists are far from capitalist production.
Wat is high culture en wat is low culture?
Wat onderscheidt high culture van low culture?
Aesthetics
- Up until the 19th century, high culture was everything that responded to an idea of
what was beautiful. For figurative arts, this corresponded to something that seemed
real
- Then photography was invented, and its representation of reality could not be
matched. That gave rise to modern and contemporary art.
Quality
- A similar classification identified high culture with the result of superior skills, such as
the ability to write better than others, or produce better art.
- However, technology has compensated for a lot of rarely found skills.
Popularity
Pros: this approach allows to see value also in content that not everyone considers “artistic”.
Cons: we should not forget that some cultural products are only made with the purpose of
being sold, and this can have political consequences.
Onderscheiden van high en low:
A universal distinction between high and low culture is unsustainable. – Barker & Jane
Pop Culture is a term that has been used extensively to talk about TV and now Internet-
induced media and entertainment.
,Wat is er mis met pop culture?
Theodor Adorno:
- Content is standardized and mass-produced, purely meant for consumption.
- Art, on the other hand, is not made to be sold and challenges society.
Wat is er goed aan pop culture?
John Fiske:
- Popular culture is not just about the content, but also the meanings people derive
from it.
- Consumers pick and choose their cultural diet. It’s not only about what they watch,
read, listen to, but also about what it means to them.
Why do we care??
1. Because pop culture is participative
As people nowadays make their own media and entertainment, it becomes almost
impossible to ignore content.
2. Because pop culture is influential
Research has proven that media & entertainment content influences the way people
judge themselves and others.
02-11-2017 Uses and Gratifications
Hoe en waarom selecteren mensen entertainment?
Entertainment opties
Entertainment vs. Other media or activities
Focus on the role of the audience wat willen ze en wat hebben ze nodig?
Iedereen maakt individuele keuzes bij het selecteren van media.
Media selection, media effects
- Early media research focused on the succes of campaigns.
- Er was een hoop propaganda en advertenties die krachtig waren. Ging samen met de
opkomst van tv en radio.
- Could the new mass media produce dramatic effects on mass society?
We maken ons nog steeds druk om propaganda en media dat invloed heeft op mensen.
In contrast to assumptions about powerful media effects, empirical studies in the 1940’s
started to show that audience members were:
- Active, not passive
- Selective, not a captive audience
- Obstinate, not gullible
Lazersfeld & Katz: the importance of selection and use
- People’s predispositions affect their media choices
- Media are primarily influential via interpersonal talk (leaders)
- People make strategic use of media to meet their needs
,Worries about escapism
Escapism: escape reality/ psychological problems BAD
Als mensen de media gebruiken om hun eigen “needs” te vervullen, is dat wel goed?
- People turn to their dreamlike world when they are deprived and alienated
- Downward spiral: further withdrawal from the arena of social and political action
- Less sleep/late to work displacing other activities?
- Moskalenko & Heine:
o Escapism blocks rumination (thinking about bad thoughts, jezelf gek maken)
Katz & Foulkes (1962)
What do we exactly mean by ‘escapist’ media? A process…
- Motivation or ‘drive’
- High levels of exposure
- Social context of exposure
- Distraction content
- Psychological escapism
- Dysfunctional consequences
Entertainment is een manier om uit de realiteit te ontsnappen.
Zorgen: als mensen mediagebruiken voor hun eigen welzijn, is dat een goed iets (maakt dat
de problemen waaruit mensen proberen te ontsnappen niet juist erger? Media als drug)?
- Narcotizing Dysfunction: niet functioneren door te veel escapism.
Je kan escapism motieven hebben. IK ben gefrustreerd over mijn leven, en gaan daarom
bingewatchen op netflix. Escapism kan ook optreden als mensen zoveel media
gaangebruiken dat andere dingen eronder gaan lijden. Sociale context moet ook worden
meegenomen. Mensen gebruiken media ook in een sociale context. Je kan ook naar
decontext kijken. Sommige films zijn meer escapist (harry potter) dan andere films. Ook naar
het psychologische proces kijken. Dysfunctionele proces: gaan mensen minder goed
functioneren door het mediagebruik.
2x3 grid op slide Katz & Foulkes.
Veel media is escapism, maar er is veel variatie. Escapism kan ook functioneel zijn.
Mensenverschillen in hoeverre mensen hun problemen ‘’herkauwen’’. Escapism is dan een
manierom dit herkauwen te stoppen (Moskalenko & Heine).
Immersive experiences into entertainment
- Absorption (Lecture 4)
- Enjoyment (Lecture 6)
- Suspense (Lecture 7)
- Appreciation (Lecture 10)
- Parasocial interaction (Lecture 12)
- Identification (Lectures 12 and 13)
- Interactivity (Lecture 14)
- Presence: a sense of “being there”
, - Transportation: feeling as if you have travelled to (“transported to”) the narrative
world
Transportation
Green & Brock (2000)
- Imagining the story world
- Emotional impact of the story world
- Focused attention on the story world
“That the media transport one to the world outside of one's immediate environment is the
very essence of their function.” (Katz & Foulkes, 1962, p. 384)
What do the media do to people? Can we flip that question what do people do with
media?
Het gaat om de selectie van media en processing during media use.
Verschillende mensen gebruiken media op verschillende manieren.
Hate watching – je vind t eigenlijk niet leuk maar toch kijk je het, omdat het zo vreselijk is
zoals Geordie shore.
U&G legt de selectie, processing en de effecten van mediakanalen en inhoud uit.
Gratifications is hier dan het effect. De verkregen gratification zijn niet altijd een match met
de gezochte gratificaties.
Mensen hebben redenen om de media te gebruiken. They are motivated to actively use
media in order to obtain “gratifications” (i.e., desired effects)
Assumpties van U&G
- Communicatie is gemotiveerd en doelbewust (mensen zijn vaak mindless) Rubin:
media is vaak ook een ritueel.
- Mensen zijn actief en selectief
- Sociale factoren spelen een rol in mediaeffecten (cultuurgebonden)
- Media concurreren met functionele alternatieven
- Mensen zijn invloedrijker dan de media en het proces van de effecten
- Mensen zijn in staat om te vertellen welke media ze gebruiken en waarom
However, people are not always purposive and active
- Ritualized vs. instrumental media use (Rubin, 1984)
- Also, important to understand the involvement/experience during media use
- Individual differences are important predictors of uses and gratifications
Limitations of the U&G approach
- “Typologies” are often inductive and very specific to the particular medium, time
period, or study
- In other, more deductive cases, participants may simply agree with reasonable-
sounding explanations for media use
- Studies often rely on cross-sectional surveys: No causal evidence
- Surveys typically can’t dig deep into particular message features or psychological
responses
