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Chapter 2
Word Definition
Theory Explanation of observed regularities.
Grand theory Higher up – more abstract level than theories of the middle range. Middle theory is better comprehensible in
real life. Grand theory has problems with being to abstract, unable to find good empirical evidence. It makes
it more difficult to make the necessary links with the real world.
Naïve empiricism Research that has no obvious connections with theory (grand/middle range of theory).
Empiricism General approach to the study of reality that only knowledge through experience and the senses is
acceptable.
The second meaning is the same and beliefs that the accumulation of ‘facts’ is a legitimate goal in its own
right.
Deduction Process: Theory – Hypothesis – Data collection – Findings – Hypothesis confirmed or rejected – Revision of
Theory.
Researcher draws on what is known about in a particular domain and on relevant theoretical ideas in order to
deduce a hypothesis. (last step ‘RoT’ involves induction). Most of the time quantitative
Induction The findings are fed into the theory, start from findings and end up with theory. It can use grounded theory as
a start. It uses qualitative research most of the time.
Epistemological Concerns the question of what is regarded as acceptable knowledge in a discipline.
considerations
Positivism An epistemological position that advocates the application of the methods of the natural sciences to the
study of social reality and beyond.
Only phenomena and knowledge confirmed by the senses can genuinely be warranted as knowledge;
The purpose of theory is to generate hypotheses that can be tested and assessed;
Knowledge is gathered through the gathering of facts;
Science must be conducted in a way that is value free.
Realism Empirical realism: asserts that through the use of appropriate methods, reality can be understood
, (sometimes referred to as naïve realism). A perfect correspondence between reality and the term used to
describe it.
Critical realism: a specific form of realism to recognize the reality of the natural order and the event and
discourses of the social world and holds that ‘we will only be able to understand-and so change- the social
world if we identify the structures at work that generate those events and discourses.
Interpretivism An alternative to the positivist that has dominated the social sciences for decades. A view that strategy is
required that respects the differences between people and the objects of the natural sciences and therefore
requires the social scientist to grasp the subjective meaning of social action.
Ontological considerations Concerned with the nature of social entities. Whether social entities are objective entities that have a reality
external to social actors, OR whether they are considered social constructions build up from the perceptions
and actions of social actors.
Objectivism An ontological position that social phenomena confront us as external facts that are beyond our reach or
influence.
Constructionism An ontological position that asserts that social phenomena and their meanings are continually being
accomplished by social actors. (The researches always presents a specific version of social reality, rather than
one that can be regarded as definitive)
Research strategy Quantitative = deductive - testing of theory, positivism, objectivism
(Quan/Qual) Qualitative = Inductive – generation of theory, Interpretivism, constructionism
Mixed methods research Research combining quantitative and qualitative.
Influences on the conduct (The model illustrates: Social research in the middle, values, theory, practical considerations, epistemology
of social research and ontology around it). Values are personal beliefs or the feelings of a researcher.
, Chapter 3
Word Definition
Quality criteria Reliability, replication and validity.
Reliability Is the research repeatable. Are the measures used consistent?
Replication In order for replication to take place, a study must be capable of replication – it must be replicable.
Validity The integrity of the conclusions that are generated from a piece of research.
Measurement validity – Does the measure for a concept really reflect the concept that it is supposed to be
denoting.
Internal validity – (Deals with Causality – Chapter 7) is a conclusion that incorporates a causal relationship
between two or more variables able to hold water.
External validity – Can de results of a study be generalized beyond the specific research context.
Ecological validity – Are the social scientific findings applicable to people’s everyday, natural social settings.
Inferential validity – Do authors of research produce inferences and draw conclusions that are warranted by
their research and the finding generated from it.
Naturalism Means viewing all objects of study – whether natural or social ones – as belonging to the same realm
and consequent commitment to the principles of natural scientific method.
Means being true to the nature of the phenomenon being investigated.
Style of research that seeks to minimize the intrusion of artificial methods of data collection.
Trustworthiness Credibility (Internal validity) – How believable are the findings?
Transferability (External validity) – Do the findings apply to other contexts?
Dependability (Reliability) – Are the findings likely to apply at other times?
Confirmability (Objectivity) – Has the investigator allowed his or her values to intrude to a high degree?
Research designs Five different types will be examined below.
Experimental design Quite unusual in sociology, but they are employed in related areas of enquiry. Has considerable confidence in
the robustness and trustworthiness of causal findings (very strong internal validity).
Manipulation: For an experiment to work, you need to manipulate the independent variable in order to
determine whether it does have an influence on the dependent variable.
Classic experimental design (RCT – randomized controlled trial with two groups, experimental and control group.
OBS: Observation EXP: Experimental treatment T: Timing of the observations
Chapter 2
Word Definition
Theory Explanation of observed regularities.
Grand theory Higher up – more abstract level than theories of the middle range. Middle theory is better comprehensible in
real life. Grand theory has problems with being to abstract, unable to find good empirical evidence. It makes
it more difficult to make the necessary links with the real world.
Naïve empiricism Research that has no obvious connections with theory (grand/middle range of theory).
Empiricism General approach to the study of reality that only knowledge through experience and the senses is
acceptable.
The second meaning is the same and beliefs that the accumulation of ‘facts’ is a legitimate goal in its own
right.
Deduction Process: Theory – Hypothesis – Data collection – Findings – Hypothesis confirmed or rejected – Revision of
Theory.
Researcher draws on what is known about in a particular domain and on relevant theoretical ideas in order to
deduce a hypothesis. (last step ‘RoT’ involves induction). Most of the time quantitative
Induction The findings are fed into the theory, start from findings and end up with theory. It can use grounded theory as
a start. It uses qualitative research most of the time.
Epistemological Concerns the question of what is regarded as acceptable knowledge in a discipline.
considerations
Positivism An epistemological position that advocates the application of the methods of the natural sciences to the
study of social reality and beyond.
Only phenomena and knowledge confirmed by the senses can genuinely be warranted as knowledge;
The purpose of theory is to generate hypotheses that can be tested and assessed;
Knowledge is gathered through the gathering of facts;
Science must be conducted in a way that is value free.
Realism Empirical realism: asserts that through the use of appropriate methods, reality can be understood
, (sometimes referred to as naïve realism). A perfect correspondence between reality and the term used to
describe it.
Critical realism: a specific form of realism to recognize the reality of the natural order and the event and
discourses of the social world and holds that ‘we will only be able to understand-and so change- the social
world if we identify the structures at work that generate those events and discourses.
Interpretivism An alternative to the positivist that has dominated the social sciences for decades. A view that strategy is
required that respects the differences between people and the objects of the natural sciences and therefore
requires the social scientist to grasp the subjective meaning of social action.
Ontological considerations Concerned with the nature of social entities. Whether social entities are objective entities that have a reality
external to social actors, OR whether they are considered social constructions build up from the perceptions
and actions of social actors.
Objectivism An ontological position that social phenomena confront us as external facts that are beyond our reach or
influence.
Constructionism An ontological position that asserts that social phenomena and their meanings are continually being
accomplished by social actors. (The researches always presents a specific version of social reality, rather than
one that can be regarded as definitive)
Research strategy Quantitative = deductive - testing of theory, positivism, objectivism
(Quan/Qual) Qualitative = Inductive – generation of theory, Interpretivism, constructionism
Mixed methods research Research combining quantitative and qualitative.
Influences on the conduct (The model illustrates: Social research in the middle, values, theory, practical considerations, epistemology
of social research and ontology around it). Values are personal beliefs or the feelings of a researcher.
, Chapter 3
Word Definition
Quality criteria Reliability, replication and validity.
Reliability Is the research repeatable. Are the measures used consistent?
Replication In order for replication to take place, a study must be capable of replication – it must be replicable.
Validity The integrity of the conclusions that are generated from a piece of research.
Measurement validity – Does the measure for a concept really reflect the concept that it is supposed to be
denoting.
Internal validity – (Deals with Causality – Chapter 7) is a conclusion that incorporates a causal relationship
between two or more variables able to hold water.
External validity – Can de results of a study be generalized beyond the specific research context.
Ecological validity – Are the social scientific findings applicable to people’s everyday, natural social settings.
Inferential validity – Do authors of research produce inferences and draw conclusions that are warranted by
their research and the finding generated from it.
Naturalism Means viewing all objects of study – whether natural or social ones – as belonging to the same realm
and consequent commitment to the principles of natural scientific method.
Means being true to the nature of the phenomenon being investigated.
Style of research that seeks to minimize the intrusion of artificial methods of data collection.
Trustworthiness Credibility (Internal validity) – How believable are the findings?
Transferability (External validity) – Do the findings apply to other contexts?
Dependability (Reliability) – Are the findings likely to apply at other times?
Confirmability (Objectivity) – Has the investigator allowed his or her values to intrude to a high degree?
Research designs Five different types will be examined below.
Experimental design Quite unusual in sociology, but they are employed in related areas of enquiry. Has considerable confidence in
the robustness and trustworthiness of causal findings (very strong internal validity).
Manipulation: For an experiment to work, you need to manipulate the independent variable in order to
determine whether it does have an influence on the dependent variable.
Classic experimental design (RCT – randomized controlled trial with two groups, experimental and control group.
OBS: Observation EXP: Experimental treatment T: Timing of the observations
