CONTEMPORARY HISTORY
Lecture 5
THE ADVENT OF MASS SOCIETY AND THE END OF CENTURY’S CRISIS
On the eve of the 20th century , the European Countries looked very stable, experiencing the longest
peace ever.
The picture of a stale Europe was not completely true because of the major change in progress and
serious problems which would be the cause of the anti democratic movements and regimes of the 20th
century.
The first major change that was taking place in pre 1914 Europe was the Second Industrial
Revolution , which started in the later half of the 19th century and lasted until the First World War.
New technologies → electricity and engine combustion
New materials and substances → chemicals and steel
New communication technologies → telegraph, telephone and radio
Improvement of the living standard
Death rate decline
Effects most evident in Britain, Germany, France and the Low Countries
A major change happened in the intellectual level→ they were shaking off the established thoughts of
the 19th century. The new intellectual thought was based on liberalism and materialism, they had
pointed towards rational and progressive change.
People who made a difference in this new wave:
Henry Bergson: “Spiritualism”
Italian Benedetto Croce “Idealism and Historicism”
Gaetano Mosca: “Theory of Elitism” → it influenced the autocratic leaders of the 20th century
with the idea that only a minority should lead society
Gustave Le Bon: “Social Psychology” → social psychology root came in
o There was a great and scientific interest in the emotional behavior of the masses →
used by totalitarian movements to learn how to influence the masses (Fascism,
Nazism)
There was a great emphasis on the concepts of youth and renewal. All of these ideas had a profound
effect on the dictatorships of the 1900’s . The transformation of thoughts also affected the marxist
movement → socialist movements were considered the main threat to the liberal system.
Governments tried to find ways to take actions against the marxist movements and trade unions.
At the end of the 1900’s most marxists organizations in the Eu wanted a progressive change
achievable only through the Parliamentary World of the Social Democratic Party.
Marxism was widespread through the new working class in Germany, England and some of
Italy → wanted to achieve a progressive change through the marxist parties.
By the end of the century there was a growing force inside the marxist movement advocating
violent revolutions : Bolsheviks vs Mensheviks (violent radicals vs not as violent or radical)
Another influence was emerging:
on the far left, the:
o Revolutionary Syndicalism → idea developed by george Sorel in France. According
to Sorel trade unions had ro be used as a revolutionary device to achieve political
power. Some ideas on the far left (trade unions) combined with some ideas from the
far right (violence and revolution), made the theory of Sorel really appreciated by
Mussolini.
on the far right, like:
o Social Darwinism → adapted the ideas of British Charles Darwin, who in 1859
published his thinking in his book on natural selection of animal species. He argued
that populations tend to grow faster than supply so they must compete for food,
members who survive are the fittest and those who don’t are the weakest → those
who haven’t adopted to the society
, The surviving members would produce offspring who would share
advantages of their parents. The species may change over centuries →
evolution of species over time.
Darwin’s idea of a change through natural selection → Theory of Evolution.
even though his idea applied to animals, people considered that these ideas
could benefit in the political and economic field →Social darwinism adapted
concepts related to biology and natural evolution to a generalized conception
of humanity
The result was new thyroids between strong/ weak races and the survival of
the fittest race → Collection of racist theories also created the basis of the
ideological defense of imperialism
WIDESPREAD BELIEFS IN PRE-WAR EUROPE
ANTI SEMITISM:
o Politicians and leaders like archduke Franz Ferdinand promoted these ideas
o Young Adolf Hitler who lived in Austria, knew about these theories and was certainly
influenced by a these theories in general and this sentiment was widespread into
societies
o Dreyfus affair in France and the question of protocols of the elders of Zion in Russia
A captain of the french army, Alfred Dreyfus was accused of selling war
secrets and was sentenced to life in prison → there was evidence which
accused him → false, he was framed by other army officers because he was
one of the few jewish generals in the army
Many of the people in the army had refused to let the case be reopened
Dreyfus defenders insisted that justice was important and the case needed to
be reopened
In 1898, “J’accuse” by Emile Zola was now published in the french
newspaper → he defended Dreyfus and was sentenced to prison and then
declared innocent
The case became known in all Europe
o Persecution of jews was even more severe in Eastern Europe- series of violent
“pogroms” in Tsarist Russia
Pogroms were permitted by russian officials and cause many victims in
jewish communities
From the late 1880’s, thousands of jews fled Eastern Europe fearing for their
lives→ many headed for the US and unlucky ones headed for Germany/ Italy
where they were later subjected to new persecutions years later.
o For many jews at the end of the century, new persecution convinced them to re-
establish their ancient homeland (Palestinian land)
o In 1890’s, new movements known as zionism (Zion) developed to pursue this goal
The leader of zionism was an austrian writer and journalist called Theodore
Herzl → leads to the establishment of state of Israel after the Second World
War
o “Protocol of the Elders of Zion” was a fake document used to imply a jewish plan
for global domination (jews wanted to rule the world)
Looks to be very old but was really made end of the century in Tsarist Russia
and was then distributed all over the world
Still known and still online- classic of anti semitic literature
Translated into many languages and eventually spread to US
Henry ford paid for distribution of the translated version of the protocol into
the US
Lecture 5
THE ADVENT OF MASS SOCIETY AND THE END OF CENTURY’S CRISIS
On the eve of the 20th century , the European Countries looked very stable, experiencing the longest
peace ever.
The picture of a stale Europe was not completely true because of the major change in progress and
serious problems which would be the cause of the anti democratic movements and regimes of the 20th
century.
The first major change that was taking place in pre 1914 Europe was the Second Industrial
Revolution , which started in the later half of the 19th century and lasted until the First World War.
New technologies → electricity and engine combustion
New materials and substances → chemicals and steel
New communication technologies → telegraph, telephone and radio
Improvement of the living standard
Death rate decline
Effects most evident in Britain, Germany, France and the Low Countries
A major change happened in the intellectual level→ they were shaking off the established thoughts of
the 19th century. The new intellectual thought was based on liberalism and materialism, they had
pointed towards rational and progressive change.
People who made a difference in this new wave:
Henry Bergson: “Spiritualism”
Italian Benedetto Croce “Idealism and Historicism”
Gaetano Mosca: “Theory of Elitism” → it influenced the autocratic leaders of the 20th century
with the idea that only a minority should lead society
Gustave Le Bon: “Social Psychology” → social psychology root came in
o There was a great and scientific interest in the emotional behavior of the masses →
used by totalitarian movements to learn how to influence the masses (Fascism,
Nazism)
There was a great emphasis on the concepts of youth and renewal. All of these ideas had a profound
effect on the dictatorships of the 1900’s . The transformation of thoughts also affected the marxist
movement → socialist movements were considered the main threat to the liberal system.
Governments tried to find ways to take actions against the marxist movements and trade unions.
At the end of the 1900’s most marxists organizations in the Eu wanted a progressive change
achievable only through the Parliamentary World of the Social Democratic Party.
Marxism was widespread through the new working class in Germany, England and some of
Italy → wanted to achieve a progressive change through the marxist parties.
By the end of the century there was a growing force inside the marxist movement advocating
violent revolutions : Bolsheviks vs Mensheviks (violent radicals vs not as violent or radical)
Another influence was emerging:
on the far left, the:
o Revolutionary Syndicalism → idea developed by george Sorel in France. According
to Sorel trade unions had ro be used as a revolutionary device to achieve political
power. Some ideas on the far left (trade unions) combined with some ideas from the
far right (violence and revolution), made the theory of Sorel really appreciated by
Mussolini.
on the far right, like:
o Social Darwinism → adapted the ideas of British Charles Darwin, who in 1859
published his thinking in his book on natural selection of animal species. He argued
that populations tend to grow faster than supply so they must compete for food,
members who survive are the fittest and those who don’t are the weakest → those
who haven’t adopted to the society
, The surviving members would produce offspring who would share
advantages of their parents. The species may change over centuries →
evolution of species over time.
Darwin’s idea of a change through natural selection → Theory of Evolution.
even though his idea applied to animals, people considered that these ideas
could benefit in the political and economic field →Social darwinism adapted
concepts related to biology and natural evolution to a generalized conception
of humanity
The result was new thyroids between strong/ weak races and the survival of
the fittest race → Collection of racist theories also created the basis of the
ideological defense of imperialism
WIDESPREAD BELIEFS IN PRE-WAR EUROPE
ANTI SEMITISM:
o Politicians and leaders like archduke Franz Ferdinand promoted these ideas
o Young Adolf Hitler who lived in Austria, knew about these theories and was certainly
influenced by a these theories in general and this sentiment was widespread into
societies
o Dreyfus affair in France and the question of protocols of the elders of Zion in Russia
A captain of the french army, Alfred Dreyfus was accused of selling war
secrets and was sentenced to life in prison → there was evidence which
accused him → false, he was framed by other army officers because he was
one of the few jewish generals in the army
Many of the people in the army had refused to let the case be reopened
Dreyfus defenders insisted that justice was important and the case needed to
be reopened
In 1898, “J’accuse” by Emile Zola was now published in the french
newspaper → he defended Dreyfus and was sentenced to prison and then
declared innocent
The case became known in all Europe
o Persecution of jews was even more severe in Eastern Europe- series of violent
“pogroms” in Tsarist Russia
Pogroms were permitted by russian officials and cause many victims in
jewish communities
From the late 1880’s, thousands of jews fled Eastern Europe fearing for their
lives→ many headed for the US and unlucky ones headed for Germany/ Italy
where they were later subjected to new persecutions years later.
o For many jews at the end of the century, new persecution convinced them to re-
establish their ancient homeland (Palestinian land)
o In 1890’s, new movements known as zionism (Zion) developed to pursue this goal
The leader of zionism was an austrian writer and journalist called Theodore
Herzl → leads to the establishment of state of Israel after the Second World
War
o “Protocol of the Elders of Zion” was a fake document used to imply a jewish plan
for global domination (jews wanted to rule the world)
Looks to be very old but was really made end of the century in Tsarist Russia
and was then distributed all over the world
Still known and still online- classic of anti semitic literature
Translated into many languages and eventually spread to US
Henry ford paid for distribution of the translated version of the protocol into
the US
