Blok 1.8
Learning Man
#1 MOTIVATION
MOTIVATION
=> an internal process that activates, guides, & maintains behaviour over time
-> the willingness to put effort into learning – product of many factors (student’s personality, abilities,
characteristics of the tasks, incentives for learning, settings & teacher behaviour)
-> students who are motivated to learn something use higher cognitive processes in learning about it & absorb &
retain more from it
-> can lead to
- behavioural engagement
- cognitive engagement
- emotional engagement
-> five factors concerning motivation
1) the choices people make (direction)
2) the effort the person puts into the activity (effort)
3) the intensity of the behaviour (intensity) / persistency
(4) the cause)
5) the thinking/feeling during the process
Intrinsic Motivation
=> the natural human tendency to seek out challenges as to pursue personal interest & to show capabilities
-> the activity itself is satisfying – incentives/punishments aren’t needed
-> predicts best performance
Flow => an intense form of intrinsic motivation leading to complete absorption & concentration in the task
Volition => when you decide whether it’s good to study / relax during a study spree ?? ask maira
Extrinsic Motivation
=> created by external factors such as rewards & punishments
-> no real interest in the activity itself; only care about the gains of the activity
-> associated w/ negative emotions & poor achievement, but can also
be beneficial
Locus of Causality => look @ the reason why someone is motivated to
determine the kind of motivation
Extrinsic to Intrinsic Rewards:
1) External Motivation: dependent on rewards; how motivation
originates outside a person; sole purpose of receiving a reward
2) Introjected Motivation: type of extrinsic motivation in which
ones behaviour is largely influenced by one’s feelings – can be
caused by guilt (feelings are socially accepted)
3) Identification Motivation: do it for the long run, identify w/ the
activity; valuing the task, accepting process of regulation
4) Integration Motivation: individual accepts the
behaviour/activity/task as a moral value -> leads to intrinsic
motivation
,=> combination of intrinsic & extrinsic motivation leads to strongest motivation (but can also be negative)
Locus of Control
-> Internal (individual believes his/her own actions/capabilities determines the outcome) -> also called self-
efficacy (belief that one’s behaviour can make a difference)
-> External (individual believes fate, luck, external sources determine the outcome
-> motivations is often controlled by both intrinsic & extrinsic motivation, which is why locus of control explains
motivation better
-> high locus of control -> better grades
-> 2nd most important predictor of students’ academic achievement
APPROACHES/THEORIES
BEHAVIOURAL APPROACH -> relates to EXTRINSIC motivation
=> principle that behaviours that have been reinforced in the past are more likely to be repeated (law of effect)
-> focus on the degree to which students learn to do schoolwork to obtain desired outcomes (grades, appraisal
etc.) / focus on learning to be motivated due to rewards & punishments
-> operant & classical conditioning
Reward: an attractive object that is supplied as a consequence of a particular behaviour
Incentive: the expectation of getting the reward in the future
// human behaviour is highly complex & context-bound; the reinforcing value of most reinforcers is largely
determined by personal/situational factors – can never be sure if reinforcement is valued; relies only on extrinsic
motivation; doesn’t explain that learned associations are override w/ cognitive components
HUMANISTIC APPROACH -> relates to INTRINSIC motivation
-> concept of motivation to satisfy needs – people differ in the degree of importance they attach to each of these
need
-> focus on the need for self-actualization (= the desire to become everything that one is capable of becoming; a
person’s ability to develop his/her full potential)
-> to motivate means to encourage people’s inner resources
,Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
-> hierarchy ranging from low-level needs to self-actualization; lower needs need to be fulfilled in order to focus
on the next one
-> Deficiency Needs= basic requirements for physical & psychological well-being (e.g.: safety, affect, hunger, thirst,
esteem)
-> Growth Needs= needs for knowing, appreciating & understanding, which people try to satisfy after their basic
needs are met (e.g.: intellectual achievement, aesthetic, self-actualization)
// moving back & forth IS possible, you can have multiple needs, self-actualization isn’t reached very often
Self-Determination Theory by Deci & Ryan
=> humans need to feel:
1) competence (achievement, self-efficacy)
2) autonomy (control, power)
3) relatedness (affiliation, belonging)
-> need for autonomy -> central ! (people have the desire to determine their own actions rather than being
controlled)
=> so if competence & autonomy is satisfied -> intrinsic motivation
-> more self-determination leads to positive effects (e.g.: higher grades)
Implications for Education
-> important indicator: relationship between deficiency needs & growth needs
-> most important: love & self-esteem -> students who don’t feel loved & not capable -> unlikely to have a
strong motivation to learn & achieve higher-level growth objectives -> they go w/ the crowd, study without
interest etc
-> to help: teacher who can put students @ ease & make them feel accepted & respected (must respond fairly &
consistently)
COGNITIVE APPROACH -> INTRINSIC motivation
-> people are naturally curious & active
-> reaction on the behavioural approach – behaviour is guided by our thinking rather than rewards &
punishments
-> self-efficacy, control & self-determination leads to having intrinsic motivation
Self-Beliefs/Perceptions
-> when thinking about your ability you can have 2 views
1) Entity View: your ability is fixed; tend to set performance avoidance goals
2) Incremental View: your ability is controllable; tend to seek mastery focus goals
Attribution Theory
=> theory of motivation that focuses on how people explain the causes of their own success & failures
-> if people succeed they’re more likely to attribute this to their own capacity & if they fail – to external factors
1) locus of what the cause is (is seen as internal/external; seems to connect to self-esteem)
2) stable causation of events ( is seen as stable/instable; what you think will happen in the future)
3) controllability (whether an event is perceived as controllable or not)
-> high self-efficacy -> relate own performance to own effort they put into it
-> learned helplessness -> no matter what you do, you fail anyway – stop trying & putting effort into it
Self-Worth Theory
-> one’s confidence – includes all theories in one
-> 3 motivational sets:
, 1) mastery-orientated students => have an incremental view, try to increase own skills, aren’t afraid of failing
because it won’t have an effect on their self-worth
-> choose difficult tasks; have high self-efficacy; want to receive feedback
-> use adaptive strategies
2) failure-avoiding students => have an entity view, set performance goals, feel as smart as their last
given grade
-> leads to self-handicapping
3) failure-accepting students => effect of the failure-avoiding approach – when you keep failing you have
low levels of self-worth
-> leads to helplessness
-> Self-Handicapping: reducing effort; setting too high goals; taking on too much; cheating; procrastinating ->
can lead to mood disorders
In contrast, cognitive approach doesn’t make these statements. A pure cognitive approach says that learning is all
about changing mental representations of knowledge, how does information processing occurs, how people store
and retrieve information from memory.
SOCIAL COGNITIVE APPROACH -> both INTRINSIC & EXTRINSIC
=> motivation is product of the expectations of reaching a goal & the value of that goal
Expectancy Theory
=> a theory of motivation based on the belief that people’s efforts to achieve a goal depend on their expectation
of the reward
-> based on chance of success & the individual value of success (if one is missing – no motivation)
-> expectancy-valence model: relates the probability & the incentive value of success to motivation; students belief
that they were capable & their valuing of academic success were, taken together, more important than their
actual ability in predicting their achievement
Motivation (M)= Perceived Probability of Success (Ps) x Incentive Value of Success (Is)
-> success in an easy task isn’t valued as success in a difficult task -> motivation @ max. when probability of
success is moderate – person’s motivation increases as task difficulty increases up to a point where success is very
unlikely
-> costs of behaviour can also be taken into account in the formula
Goal Orientation Theory
-> goal as the outcome an individual is striving to achieve
-> makes you: focus on what is important; energize effort; increases persistence; trying out different ways to get
to that goal
-> specific, moderately difficult, and likely to be reached in the near future => BEST goals to enhance motivation
& persistence
-> important: feedback, goal acceptance, goal framing (whether the goals activates intrinsic motivation)
-> goal orientation: the pattern that makes someone pursue a goal
- Mastery/Learning Goals:
=> the goal of students who are motivated primarily by desire for knowledge acquisition &
self-improvement
-> individual is determined to understand the topic rather than only getting good outcomes; overall more
invested; set higher goals; are more engaged; seek challenges;
-> approach focus: understand the task, self-improvement; wants to learn & chooses moderate
tasks
-> avoidance focus: wants to avoid misunderstanding/problems/failure; is afraid of failure so
chooses less difficult tasks
- Performance Goals:
Learning Man
#1 MOTIVATION
MOTIVATION
=> an internal process that activates, guides, & maintains behaviour over time
-> the willingness to put effort into learning – product of many factors (student’s personality, abilities,
characteristics of the tasks, incentives for learning, settings & teacher behaviour)
-> students who are motivated to learn something use higher cognitive processes in learning about it & absorb &
retain more from it
-> can lead to
- behavioural engagement
- cognitive engagement
- emotional engagement
-> five factors concerning motivation
1) the choices people make (direction)
2) the effort the person puts into the activity (effort)
3) the intensity of the behaviour (intensity) / persistency
(4) the cause)
5) the thinking/feeling during the process
Intrinsic Motivation
=> the natural human tendency to seek out challenges as to pursue personal interest & to show capabilities
-> the activity itself is satisfying – incentives/punishments aren’t needed
-> predicts best performance
Flow => an intense form of intrinsic motivation leading to complete absorption & concentration in the task
Volition => when you decide whether it’s good to study / relax during a study spree ?? ask maira
Extrinsic Motivation
=> created by external factors such as rewards & punishments
-> no real interest in the activity itself; only care about the gains of the activity
-> associated w/ negative emotions & poor achievement, but can also
be beneficial
Locus of Causality => look @ the reason why someone is motivated to
determine the kind of motivation
Extrinsic to Intrinsic Rewards:
1) External Motivation: dependent on rewards; how motivation
originates outside a person; sole purpose of receiving a reward
2) Introjected Motivation: type of extrinsic motivation in which
ones behaviour is largely influenced by one’s feelings – can be
caused by guilt (feelings are socially accepted)
3) Identification Motivation: do it for the long run, identify w/ the
activity; valuing the task, accepting process of regulation
4) Integration Motivation: individual accepts the
behaviour/activity/task as a moral value -> leads to intrinsic
motivation
,=> combination of intrinsic & extrinsic motivation leads to strongest motivation (but can also be negative)
Locus of Control
-> Internal (individual believes his/her own actions/capabilities determines the outcome) -> also called self-
efficacy (belief that one’s behaviour can make a difference)
-> External (individual believes fate, luck, external sources determine the outcome
-> motivations is often controlled by both intrinsic & extrinsic motivation, which is why locus of control explains
motivation better
-> high locus of control -> better grades
-> 2nd most important predictor of students’ academic achievement
APPROACHES/THEORIES
BEHAVIOURAL APPROACH -> relates to EXTRINSIC motivation
=> principle that behaviours that have been reinforced in the past are more likely to be repeated (law of effect)
-> focus on the degree to which students learn to do schoolwork to obtain desired outcomes (grades, appraisal
etc.) / focus on learning to be motivated due to rewards & punishments
-> operant & classical conditioning
Reward: an attractive object that is supplied as a consequence of a particular behaviour
Incentive: the expectation of getting the reward in the future
// human behaviour is highly complex & context-bound; the reinforcing value of most reinforcers is largely
determined by personal/situational factors – can never be sure if reinforcement is valued; relies only on extrinsic
motivation; doesn’t explain that learned associations are override w/ cognitive components
HUMANISTIC APPROACH -> relates to INTRINSIC motivation
-> concept of motivation to satisfy needs – people differ in the degree of importance they attach to each of these
need
-> focus on the need for self-actualization (= the desire to become everything that one is capable of becoming; a
person’s ability to develop his/her full potential)
-> to motivate means to encourage people’s inner resources
,Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
-> hierarchy ranging from low-level needs to self-actualization; lower needs need to be fulfilled in order to focus
on the next one
-> Deficiency Needs= basic requirements for physical & psychological well-being (e.g.: safety, affect, hunger, thirst,
esteem)
-> Growth Needs= needs for knowing, appreciating & understanding, which people try to satisfy after their basic
needs are met (e.g.: intellectual achievement, aesthetic, self-actualization)
// moving back & forth IS possible, you can have multiple needs, self-actualization isn’t reached very often
Self-Determination Theory by Deci & Ryan
=> humans need to feel:
1) competence (achievement, self-efficacy)
2) autonomy (control, power)
3) relatedness (affiliation, belonging)
-> need for autonomy -> central ! (people have the desire to determine their own actions rather than being
controlled)
=> so if competence & autonomy is satisfied -> intrinsic motivation
-> more self-determination leads to positive effects (e.g.: higher grades)
Implications for Education
-> important indicator: relationship between deficiency needs & growth needs
-> most important: love & self-esteem -> students who don’t feel loved & not capable -> unlikely to have a
strong motivation to learn & achieve higher-level growth objectives -> they go w/ the crowd, study without
interest etc
-> to help: teacher who can put students @ ease & make them feel accepted & respected (must respond fairly &
consistently)
COGNITIVE APPROACH -> INTRINSIC motivation
-> people are naturally curious & active
-> reaction on the behavioural approach – behaviour is guided by our thinking rather than rewards &
punishments
-> self-efficacy, control & self-determination leads to having intrinsic motivation
Self-Beliefs/Perceptions
-> when thinking about your ability you can have 2 views
1) Entity View: your ability is fixed; tend to set performance avoidance goals
2) Incremental View: your ability is controllable; tend to seek mastery focus goals
Attribution Theory
=> theory of motivation that focuses on how people explain the causes of their own success & failures
-> if people succeed they’re more likely to attribute this to their own capacity & if they fail – to external factors
1) locus of what the cause is (is seen as internal/external; seems to connect to self-esteem)
2) stable causation of events ( is seen as stable/instable; what you think will happen in the future)
3) controllability (whether an event is perceived as controllable or not)
-> high self-efficacy -> relate own performance to own effort they put into it
-> learned helplessness -> no matter what you do, you fail anyway – stop trying & putting effort into it
Self-Worth Theory
-> one’s confidence – includes all theories in one
-> 3 motivational sets:
, 1) mastery-orientated students => have an incremental view, try to increase own skills, aren’t afraid of failing
because it won’t have an effect on their self-worth
-> choose difficult tasks; have high self-efficacy; want to receive feedback
-> use adaptive strategies
2) failure-avoiding students => have an entity view, set performance goals, feel as smart as their last
given grade
-> leads to self-handicapping
3) failure-accepting students => effect of the failure-avoiding approach – when you keep failing you have
low levels of self-worth
-> leads to helplessness
-> Self-Handicapping: reducing effort; setting too high goals; taking on too much; cheating; procrastinating ->
can lead to mood disorders
In contrast, cognitive approach doesn’t make these statements. A pure cognitive approach says that learning is all
about changing mental representations of knowledge, how does information processing occurs, how people store
and retrieve information from memory.
SOCIAL COGNITIVE APPROACH -> both INTRINSIC & EXTRINSIC
=> motivation is product of the expectations of reaching a goal & the value of that goal
Expectancy Theory
=> a theory of motivation based on the belief that people’s efforts to achieve a goal depend on their expectation
of the reward
-> based on chance of success & the individual value of success (if one is missing – no motivation)
-> expectancy-valence model: relates the probability & the incentive value of success to motivation; students belief
that they were capable & their valuing of academic success were, taken together, more important than their
actual ability in predicting their achievement
Motivation (M)= Perceived Probability of Success (Ps) x Incentive Value of Success (Is)
-> success in an easy task isn’t valued as success in a difficult task -> motivation @ max. when probability of
success is moderate – person’s motivation increases as task difficulty increases up to a point where success is very
unlikely
-> costs of behaviour can also be taken into account in the formula
Goal Orientation Theory
-> goal as the outcome an individual is striving to achieve
-> makes you: focus on what is important; energize effort; increases persistence; trying out different ways to get
to that goal
-> specific, moderately difficult, and likely to be reached in the near future => BEST goals to enhance motivation
& persistence
-> important: feedback, goal acceptance, goal framing (whether the goals activates intrinsic motivation)
-> goal orientation: the pattern that makes someone pursue a goal
- Mastery/Learning Goals:
=> the goal of students who are motivated primarily by desire for knowledge acquisition &
self-improvement
-> individual is determined to understand the topic rather than only getting good outcomes; overall more
invested; set higher goals; are more engaged; seek challenges;
-> approach focus: understand the task, self-improvement; wants to learn & chooses moderate
tasks
-> avoidance focus: wants to avoid misunderstanding/problems/failure; is afraid of failure so
chooses less difficult tasks
- Performance Goals:
