A-Level AQA 2023 Psychology Paper 3 Issues and Options in Psychology Mark Scheme
Assumptions of the behaviourist approach (6) - Answer-1. We are all born as a blank slate.
2. All behaviour is learnt.
3. We are a product of our environment (nurture).
4. All behaviour can be explained through classical and operant conditioning.
5. Behaviour should be investigated using scientific experiments.
6. Basic learning processes are the same in all species
Pavlov- Classical Conditioning - Answer--learning thriugh association
-taught dogs how to salivate to the sound of a bell
Operant conditioning - Answer--learning is an active process where humans and animals operate on
their environment, behaviour is shaped by consequences
-positive reinforcement: rewarding a behaviour so is repeated
-negative reinforcement: avoiding something unpleasant
-punishment: unpleasant consequence of behaviour, decreases the likelihood of repeating the
behaviour
Skinner's Box (Operant Conditioning) - Answer-Hungry rat put in a box. When it pressed a lever, it
was presented with food. Learnt to repeat the behaviour (positive reinforcement).
In another variation, the rat learnt to push the lever to stop electric shocks (negative reinforcement)
Evaluate the behaviourist approach (Strengths) - Answer-1)Well-controlled research: they focus on
measuring observable behaviour within highly controlled settings. by breaking behaviour into S-R
links, all extraneous variables are removed.
2)Real-world application: operant conditioning is the foundation of token economy systems used in
institutions like prisons and psych wards.
Evaluate the behaviourist approach (Limitations) - Answer-1) Oversimplified learning- reductionist as
reduces behaviour to simple components and ignored human thought which other approaches like
SLT and cog. approach take into account.
2)Environmental determinism-sees all behaviour as conditioned by past conditioning experiences.
Skinner said everything we do is the sum total of our reinforcement history. This ignores the
influence of free will which he considered to be an illusion.
,Assumptions of social learning theory - Answer-People learn through observation and imitation of
others
Vicarious reinforcement - Answer--indirect learning when one observes the behaviour of others
-imitation only occurs if the behaviour is seen to be rewarded
Bandura et al- SLT - Answer--recorded the behaviour of young children who watched an adult
behave in an aggressive way towards a Bobo doll
-the adult hit the doll with a hammer and shouted abuse at it
-these children treated the toys more aggressively than those in the other condition with a non-
aggressive adult
4 mediational processes in learning - Answer-1)Attention
2)Retention
3)Motor reproduction
4)Motivation
-the first 2 are related to the learning of the behaviour and the last 2 are about performance of the
baehaviour
Identification-SLT - Answer-A person identifies with a role model and models them. A person
becomes a role model if they are seen to possess similar characteristics to the observer/are
attractive and have high status.
What did Shutts et al find about who children are more likely to imitate? - Answer-a playmate of
similar age and race
Evaluate SLT (Strengths) - Answer-1) Cognitive factors recognised- a more comprehensive
explanation of human learning than behaviourists.
2) Real-world application- explains cultural diffs in behaviour. Modelling, imitations and
reinforcement can account for how children learn them.
Evaluate SLT (Limitations) - Answer-1)Biological factors ignores- although Bandura claimed natural
biological diffs influenced our learning potential, he thought it was determined by environment.
Research shows that the observational learning may be due to mirror neurons in the brain.
,2) Contrived lab studies- ppts may respond to demand characteristics. Children may have thought
that since the main purpose of the Bobo doll was to strike it, they did what was expected of them.
Assumptions of the psychodynamic approach - Answer--The conscious mind is merely the tip of the
iceberg
-Most of our mind is the unconscious
-The unconscious contains repressed disturbing memories that can be accessed through dreams or
slip of the tongues (parapraxes)
-Under the surface of our conscious mind is the preconscious which contains thoughts and
memories that aren't currently in our conscious but can be accessed.
The Id - Answer--primitive part of our personality
-operates on the pleasure principle
-seething mass of unconscious drives and instincts
-only part present at birth
-throughout life, it is entirely selfish and demands instant gratification
The Ego - Answer--works on the reality principle
-mediator between the other 2 parts
-develops around age 2 and it reduces conflict between the Id and Superego's demands
-manages this by employing a number of defence mechanisms
The Ego's defence mechanisms - Answer-1)Repression - burying an unpleasant thought or desire in
the unconscious
2)Displacement - emotions are directed away from their source or target, towards other things
3)Denial - a threatening thought is ignored or treated as if it were not true
-they're done to reduce anxiety
Superego - Answer--formed at the end of the Phallic stage, around 5 years old
-our internalised sense of right and wrong-based on the morality principle- represents moral
standards of our same-sex parent and punishes the Id for wrongdoing through guilt
, Psychosexual stages - Answer-each stages apart from latency is marked by a diff conflict that the
child must resolve in order to progress successfully to the next stage. any unresolved conflict leads
to fixation where the child becomes stuck and carries certain behaviours through to adult life
stages: oral, anal, phallic, latency and genital
Oral stage - Answer--0-1 years old
-focus of pleasure is the mouth, mothers breast is the object of desire
-consequence of unresolved conflict: oral fixation- smoking, biting nails, sarcastic, critical
Anal stage - Answer--1-3 years
-focus of pleasure is the anus, gains pleasure withholding and expelling faeces
-consequence: anal retentive (perfectionist, obsessive), anal expulsive (thoughtless, messy)
Phallic stage - Answer--3-6 years
-focus of pleasure is the genital area
-C: phallic personality (narcissistic, reckless)
Latency stage - Answer-6-puberty
-sexual urges are repressed
Genital stage - Answer--sexual desires become conscious alongside the onset of puberty
-C: difficulty forming hetero relatsionships
Evaluate psychodynamic approach (Strengths) - Answer-1) Real-world application: introduced idea
of psychotherapy. Freud brought psychoanalysis to first treat mental disorders psychologically rather
than physically by trying to access the unconscious (Dream analysis). Aims to bring repressed
emotions to the conscious mind to be dealt with.
2) Explanatory power: it explains human behaviour although bizarre. It is significant in drawing
attention to the connection between childhood experiences and our later development.
Evaluate the psychodynamic approach (limitations) - Answer-1) Psychoanalysis isn't for everyone-
has claimed success with clients with mild neuroses but is inappropriate, even harmful, for those
with more serious mental disorders like Sz as many of the symptoms are due to a lost grip of reality
and their thoughts can't be articulated right.
Assumptions of the behaviourist approach (6) - Answer-1. We are all born as a blank slate.
2. All behaviour is learnt.
3. We are a product of our environment (nurture).
4. All behaviour can be explained through classical and operant conditioning.
5. Behaviour should be investigated using scientific experiments.
6. Basic learning processes are the same in all species
Pavlov- Classical Conditioning - Answer--learning thriugh association
-taught dogs how to salivate to the sound of a bell
Operant conditioning - Answer--learning is an active process where humans and animals operate on
their environment, behaviour is shaped by consequences
-positive reinforcement: rewarding a behaviour so is repeated
-negative reinforcement: avoiding something unpleasant
-punishment: unpleasant consequence of behaviour, decreases the likelihood of repeating the
behaviour
Skinner's Box (Operant Conditioning) - Answer-Hungry rat put in a box. When it pressed a lever, it
was presented with food. Learnt to repeat the behaviour (positive reinforcement).
In another variation, the rat learnt to push the lever to stop electric shocks (negative reinforcement)
Evaluate the behaviourist approach (Strengths) - Answer-1)Well-controlled research: they focus on
measuring observable behaviour within highly controlled settings. by breaking behaviour into S-R
links, all extraneous variables are removed.
2)Real-world application: operant conditioning is the foundation of token economy systems used in
institutions like prisons and psych wards.
Evaluate the behaviourist approach (Limitations) - Answer-1) Oversimplified learning- reductionist as
reduces behaviour to simple components and ignored human thought which other approaches like
SLT and cog. approach take into account.
2)Environmental determinism-sees all behaviour as conditioned by past conditioning experiences.
Skinner said everything we do is the sum total of our reinforcement history. This ignores the
influence of free will which he considered to be an illusion.
,Assumptions of social learning theory - Answer-People learn through observation and imitation of
others
Vicarious reinforcement - Answer--indirect learning when one observes the behaviour of others
-imitation only occurs if the behaviour is seen to be rewarded
Bandura et al- SLT - Answer--recorded the behaviour of young children who watched an adult
behave in an aggressive way towards a Bobo doll
-the adult hit the doll with a hammer and shouted abuse at it
-these children treated the toys more aggressively than those in the other condition with a non-
aggressive adult
4 mediational processes in learning - Answer-1)Attention
2)Retention
3)Motor reproduction
4)Motivation
-the first 2 are related to the learning of the behaviour and the last 2 are about performance of the
baehaviour
Identification-SLT - Answer-A person identifies with a role model and models them. A person
becomes a role model if they are seen to possess similar characteristics to the observer/are
attractive and have high status.
What did Shutts et al find about who children are more likely to imitate? - Answer-a playmate of
similar age and race
Evaluate SLT (Strengths) - Answer-1) Cognitive factors recognised- a more comprehensive
explanation of human learning than behaviourists.
2) Real-world application- explains cultural diffs in behaviour. Modelling, imitations and
reinforcement can account for how children learn them.
Evaluate SLT (Limitations) - Answer-1)Biological factors ignores- although Bandura claimed natural
biological diffs influenced our learning potential, he thought it was determined by environment.
Research shows that the observational learning may be due to mirror neurons in the brain.
,2) Contrived lab studies- ppts may respond to demand characteristics. Children may have thought
that since the main purpose of the Bobo doll was to strike it, they did what was expected of them.
Assumptions of the psychodynamic approach - Answer--The conscious mind is merely the tip of the
iceberg
-Most of our mind is the unconscious
-The unconscious contains repressed disturbing memories that can be accessed through dreams or
slip of the tongues (parapraxes)
-Under the surface of our conscious mind is the preconscious which contains thoughts and
memories that aren't currently in our conscious but can be accessed.
The Id - Answer--primitive part of our personality
-operates on the pleasure principle
-seething mass of unconscious drives and instincts
-only part present at birth
-throughout life, it is entirely selfish and demands instant gratification
The Ego - Answer--works on the reality principle
-mediator between the other 2 parts
-develops around age 2 and it reduces conflict between the Id and Superego's demands
-manages this by employing a number of defence mechanisms
The Ego's defence mechanisms - Answer-1)Repression - burying an unpleasant thought or desire in
the unconscious
2)Displacement - emotions are directed away from their source or target, towards other things
3)Denial - a threatening thought is ignored or treated as if it were not true
-they're done to reduce anxiety
Superego - Answer--formed at the end of the Phallic stage, around 5 years old
-our internalised sense of right and wrong-based on the morality principle- represents moral
standards of our same-sex parent and punishes the Id for wrongdoing through guilt
, Psychosexual stages - Answer-each stages apart from latency is marked by a diff conflict that the
child must resolve in order to progress successfully to the next stage. any unresolved conflict leads
to fixation where the child becomes stuck and carries certain behaviours through to adult life
stages: oral, anal, phallic, latency and genital
Oral stage - Answer--0-1 years old
-focus of pleasure is the mouth, mothers breast is the object of desire
-consequence of unresolved conflict: oral fixation- smoking, biting nails, sarcastic, critical
Anal stage - Answer--1-3 years
-focus of pleasure is the anus, gains pleasure withholding and expelling faeces
-consequence: anal retentive (perfectionist, obsessive), anal expulsive (thoughtless, messy)
Phallic stage - Answer--3-6 years
-focus of pleasure is the genital area
-C: phallic personality (narcissistic, reckless)
Latency stage - Answer-6-puberty
-sexual urges are repressed
Genital stage - Answer--sexual desires become conscious alongside the onset of puberty
-C: difficulty forming hetero relatsionships
Evaluate psychodynamic approach (Strengths) - Answer-1) Real-world application: introduced idea
of psychotherapy. Freud brought psychoanalysis to first treat mental disorders psychologically rather
than physically by trying to access the unconscious (Dream analysis). Aims to bring repressed
emotions to the conscious mind to be dealt with.
2) Explanatory power: it explains human behaviour although bizarre. It is significant in drawing
attention to the connection between childhood experiences and our later development.
Evaluate the psychodynamic approach (limitations) - Answer-1) Psychoanalysis isn't for everyone-
has claimed success with clients with mild neuroses but is inappropriate, even harmful, for those
with more serious mental disorders like Sz as many of the symptoms are due to a lost grip of reality
and their thoughts can't be articulated right.
