HISTORY 114
A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE LAST FIVE MILLION YEARS
PROFESSOR S. SWART
THE FIRST HUMANS
WHAT WE ARE OBSERVING IN THIS SECTION:
o Tracing the evolution of humankind
o Discuss ways of interpreting the past
o Look at the great migrations and the spread to Eurasia
o Observe the dispersity of the San hunter-gatherers
o The switch from stone to iron
o The first sedentary people in sub-Saharan Africa
o Revolutions in lifestyle (agriculture, metal-working and pottery etc.)
The first humans were known as “true humans”, Homo Sapiens, but our ancestors go back 3-5
million years ago. South Africa provides 3 and a half billion years of the evolution of life with a
unbroken fossil record stretched over 100 million years. We have an unrivalled record of
mammalian ancestry stored in the Karoo basin.
At least 3 million years ago, south Africa was home to Australopithecines- a new lineage of
primates. These Australopithecines gave rise to the humans. The oldest identifiable Homo
Sapien fossils were also found here.
LANDSCAPES OF HISTORY
The environment is an integral part of the process of history. History is written on the land.
Changes in soil, plants and animals reflect changes in the pattern of human history. The earth
itself is about 5 000 million years ago. 1 000 million years ago the earth was cool and wet
enough for life to begin. Single celled organisms (bacteria) were the first life on earth and
carried all the building blocks of life (DNA), twenty amino acids composing the proteins in the
cells of all living things.
THE EVOLUTION OF THE UPRIGHT APE
The fossil record offers us a natural archive that records changes in the earlier forms of life on
Earth. Fossils offer the dimension of “time” to the analysis of existence itself. Some of the
interpretations about the rock records were recorded in The Origin of the Species by Charles
Darwin (1809-1882). Modern research has since modified Darwin’s theories but his
fundamental ideas are still accepted. The theory of evolution can be explained in four
fundamental contentions:
Variation exists among individuals within species.
, Offspring are not exactly like their parents but vary the traits of the parents.
Organisms produce more offspring than the environment can support.
All living things produce more individuals than can survive to maturity.
Competition exists among individuals.
The survival of the fittest allows for desirable traits to outcompete other in similar
environments.
Organisms whose variations best suit them to the environment will be the most likely to
survive, reproduce and pass those desirable variations on to the next generation.
Advantageous genetic variations are passed along to be represented with increasing
frequency in succeeding generations. Darwin called this Natural Selection.
Gregor Mendel started the work regarding the understanding of hereditary information in the
1860’s in the now Czech Republic. With his work on understanding of genes and DNA, we
can now explain that the definitive source of variation occurs through mutations in the
sequence of genetic material carried on the chromosomes in the egg and sperm. These
changes occur spontaneously during the creation of copies of the genetic code for each
egg or sperm. Alterations in the sequence of the genetic code can lead to a shift in the
appearance of an individual. Some changes may prove to be harmful and other genetic
variations give a survival advantage to the organism.
Individuals change throughout their lifetimes but these changes are not evolutionary
because they cannot be inherited by their offspring. Individuals do not evolve, only
populations evolve. Species evolve over generations as their local populations interbreed
and change. A species is a group of populations that can interbreed and produce fertile
offspring. Species’ consist of changing and interbreeding populations. At any given time in
the past, members of populations of a species were capable of interbreeding. Only in
hindsight can we distinguish between ancestors and descendants in the species. Darwin’s
theory was distinct in the sense that he concluded that evolution was not a linear and
progressive march of progress but more like a branching tree. Changes in a species result in
natural selection on the inherited material that is passed on. As the environment changed,
species were compelled to respond over time through adaptations to the new
circumstances. Species that failed to do so went extinct.
AUSTRALOPITHECUS, HOMO ERECTUS AND HOMO SAPIENS
What made the human species different? We are bipedal, have largely naked skin, bigger
brains, we develop more slowly and live longer. We split from chimpanzees, our nearest
cousin, approximately 6 million years ago, most likely in east Africa. Climate changes and
earth movements may have fragmented the Miocene forest habitat of our last shared
ancestor. Some academics call us the “Third Chimpanzee”. Variance divided the ancestral
population by ecological barriers presented by fragmenting habitats.
Australopithecines (southern apes) roamed the African savannahs from 4 million years ago to
about 1,2 million years ago. The best known specimen is “Lucy” who was discovered by Don
Johanson. What was different about these primates was that they were bipedal, they had
longer thighs and shorter arms, their hips were less adapted so they probably shambled
rather than strode. Bipedalism predated the dramatic increase in brain size and tool use
which became the hallmark of modern humans. They remained partially arboreal (tree-
dwelling).
A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE LAST FIVE MILLION YEARS
PROFESSOR S. SWART
THE FIRST HUMANS
WHAT WE ARE OBSERVING IN THIS SECTION:
o Tracing the evolution of humankind
o Discuss ways of interpreting the past
o Look at the great migrations and the spread to Eurasia
o Observe the dispersity of the San hunter-gatherers
o The switch from stone to iron
o The first sedentary people in sub-Saharan Africa
o Revolutions in lifestyle (agriculture, metal-working and pottery etc.)
The first humans were known as “true humans”, Homo Sapiens, but our ancestors go back 3-5
million years ago. South Africa provides 3 and a half billion years of the evolution of life with a
unbroken fossil record stretched over 100 million years. We have an unrivalled record of
mammalian ancestry stored in the Karoo basin.
At least 3 million years ago, south Africa was home to Australopithecines- a new lineage of
primates. These Australopithecines gave rise to the humans. The oldest identifiable Homo
Sapien fossils were also found here.
LANDSCAPES OF HISTORY
The environment is an integral part of the process of history. History is written on the land.
Changes in soil, plants and animals reflect changes in the pattern of human history. The earth
itself is about 5 000 million years ago. 1 000 million years ago the earth was cool and wet
enough for life to begin. Single celled organisms (bacteria) were the first life on earth and
carried all the building blocks of life (DNA), twenty amino acids composing the proteins in the
cells of all living things.
THE EVOLUTION OF THE UPRIGHT APE
The fossil record offers us a natural archive that records changes in the earlier forms of life on
Earth. Fossils offer the dimension of “time” to the analysis of existence itself. Some of the
interpretations about the rock records were recorded in The Origin of the Species by Charles
Darwin (1809-1882). Modern research has since modified Darwin’s theories but his
fundamental ideas are still accepted. The theory of evolution can be explained in four
fundamental contentions:
Variation exists among individuals within species.
, Offspring are not exactly like their parents but vary the traits of the parents.
Organisms produce more offspring than the environment can support.
All living things produce more individuals than can survive to maturity.
Competition exists among individuals.
The survival of the fittest allows for desirable traits to outcompete other in similar
environments.
Organisms whose variations best suit them to the environment will be the most likely to
survive, reproduce and pass those desirable variations on to the next generation.
Advantageous genetic variations are passed along to be represented with increasing
frequency in succeeding generations. Darwin called this Natural Selection.
Gregor Mendel started the work regarding the understanding of hereditary information in the
1860’s in the now Czech Republic. With his work on understanding of genes and DNA, we
can now explain that the definitive source of variation occurs through mutations in the
sequence of genetic material carried on the chromosomes in the egg and sperm. These
changes occur spontaneously during the creation of copies of the genetic code for each
egg or sperm. Alterations in the sequence of the genetic code can lead to a shift in the
appearance of an individual. Some changes may prove to be harmful and other genetic
variations give a survival advantage to the organism.
Individuals change throughout their lifetimes but these changes are not evolutionary
because they cannot be inherited by their offspring. Individuals do not evolve, only
populations evolve. Species evolve over generations as their local populations interbreed
and change. A species is a group of populations that can interbreed and produce fertile
offspring. Species’ consist of changing and interbreeding populations. At any given time in
the past, members of populations of a species were capable of interbreeding. Only in
hindsight can we distinguish between ancestors and descendants in the species. Darwin’s
theory was distinct in the sense that he concluded that evolution was not a linear and
progressive march of progress but more like a branching tree. Changes in a species result in
natural selection on the inherited material that is passed on. As the environment changed,
species were compelled to respond over time through adaptations to the new
circumstances. Species that failed to do so went extinct.
AUSTRALOPITHECUS, HOMO ERECTUS AND HOMO SAPIENS
What made the human species different? We are bipedal, have largely naked skin, bigger
brains, we develop more slowly and live longer. We split from chimpanzees, our nearest
cousin, approximately 6 million years ago, most likely in east Africa. Climate changes and
earth movements may have fragmented the Miocene forest habitat of our last shared
ancestor. Some academics call us the “Third Chimpanzee”. Variance divided the ancestral
population by ecological barriers presented by fragmenting habitats.
Australopithecines (southern apes) roamed the African savannahs from 4 million years ago to
about 1,2 million years ago. The best known specimen is “Lucy” who was discovered by Don
Johanson. What was different about these primates was that they were bipedal, they had
longer thighs and shorter arms, their hips were less adapted so they probably shambled
rather than strode. Bipedalism predated the dramatic increase in brain size and tool use
which became the hallmark of modern humans. They remained partially arboreal (tree-
dwelling).
